Household Energy Research Articles

Home Energy Management combining a welfare calculation and Vehicle-to-house technique for grid stability

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) poses grid stability challenges. This study explores Home Energy Management (HEM) systems, facilitating bidirectional communication between users and energy providers to address these issues. We review HEM methods, including ZigBee, PLC control, and reinforcement learning, optimizing household energy usage. We investigate the incorporation of welfare calculation, accounting for occupants' well-being, and introduce the potential of Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) technology for enhancing energy resilience. Combining welfare calculation and V2H offers optimized HEM, prioritizing user comfort and decision-making efficiency. This report identifies research gaps and emphasizes the significance of delay-intolerant and delay-tolerant demand considerations. Battery charge-discharge conditions and utility welfare calculation are also discussed as critical facets of HEM. To solve the delay intolerant demand issue, EVs are used as storage devices to mitigate the peak load impacts using vehicle-to-house (V2H) technology. A scaled-down version (1:10^6) of the real UK electricity consumption system is used in the test. Simulation results verify that the proposed V2H system considering the welfare calculation can optimize the welfare level when one 60-kWh Tesla EV is involved in this scaled-down system.

Factors associated with the use of liquefied petroleum gas in Ghana vary at different stages of transition

Clean-cooking transitions have the potential to generate large public health, environmental and societal gains for 2.6 billion people in the Global South. Here we use data from Ghana’s largest household energy survey (n = 7,389) to provide two main insights. First, regression analysis of 13 commonly cited socio-economic and demographic determinants of household fuel use indicates remarkably different relationships with clean-fuel use at different stages of the transition process. We propose a stage-based transition framework that can help inform the rollout of clean-cooking interventions. Second, we identify factors that are associated with the exclusive use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) using a statistically powered sample of exclusive LPG users (n = 693). We show that, all else equal, increases in wealth and urbanicity are not—contrary to conventional wisdom—associated with a transition from primary to exclusive LPG use. Whereas further research is needed to determine causality, our findings highlight the potential for more careful measurement, isolating each stage of the clean-cooking transition, to inform new insights and policy opportunities.

Household energy price resilience in the face of gas and electricity market crises

Despite the provision of financial support by the Government in response to the recent energy crisis, the resilience of households to the ensuing high energy prices remains to be established. In this study we propose a new definition of resilience, specifically ‘energy price resilience’, and put forward an empirical approach to capture low energy price resilience (LENRES). We also assess its associated socio-economic and demographic factors using a representative UK panel. Using models that account for time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity, we further explore the association between LENRES and a rich set of health, disability, and wellbeing outcomes for adults and children through two fundamental routes: (1) the low energy and thermal affordability channel (LEA); and (2) the low energy and financial solvency channel (LES). We find that employment status, housing tenure, inability to save, energy prepayment methods, and household composition are systematic socio-economic correlates of LENRES. Moreover, LENRES is associated with worse health, disability, and wellbeing outcomes for adults; these associations are primarily driven by the LES component. On the other hand, in the case of children, LENRES at home is only systematically associated with life satisfaction, rather than general health. Our results suggest that targeted energy interventions could generate wider societal benefits.

Management of Household Energy Saving and Its Green Alternatives

Given the significant growth potential in households' energy consumption in China, studying household consumption behavior becomes even more valuable. This study explores factors influencing the shift in households' energy-saving preferences from habitual energy-saving behavior to consumption-oriented energy-saving behavior, as well as to analyze the potential for using other green alternatives to traditional energy in energy consumption. Empirical results reveal an inverted U-shaped relationship between household income and energy consumption, occurring when energy-saving awareness (ESA) exceeds a critical threshold. Below this threshold, household income is positively correlated with energy consumption. Further analysis indicated that once income exceeds the turning point, households' higher ESA leads to reduced energy consumption, indicating potential for green alternatives in higher-income households. Overall, the study highlights how awareness and income interact to shape energy-saving choices, emphasizing the potential for sustainable energy options in affluent households.

Energetic and Functional Rehabilitation of Residential Buildings in Europe: Analysis and Cataloguing of the Strategies Used

The aim of this paper is to explore the rehabilitation strategies for multi-family dwellings on the level of function and techniques. The study employs its own methods of analysis using a sample of selected cases as a reference. Nearly 20% of EU buildings will have to be renovated by 2023, as almost 40% of the existing houses were built before 1980. The environmental impact of construction is among the highest among industrial activities due to the high consumption of resources and the generation of low-value waste at the construction and demolition stages. One way to reduce the environmental impact in this sector is to intervene in the building process, optimising the use of resources and waste generation. The principal objective of refurbishments is to reduce household energy consumption. However, the renovations in the housing sector should not be limited to energy considerations; the functional and technical aspects should also be considered. A new refurbishment model is necessary to focus on providing and improving the habitability of the housing stock and reducing the environmental impact by optimising the use of resources and waste generation. To achieve this, the renovations should be carefully monitored.

Household energy vulnerability evaluation in southern Spain through parametric energy simulation models and socio-economic data

When proposing the most suitable strategies for retrofitting the residential stock it is essential to consider energy vulnerability, the current state of stock, users’ economic capacity and climate. This work analyses energy vulnerability on regional and neighbourhood scale, applied to the social housing stock in southern Spain. Three key vulnerability indicators are assessed through extensive public databases and validated parametric energy simulation models: 1) buildings energy performance, based on simulated indoor thermal comfort; 2) users’ socio-economic vulnerability, based on their income levels; and 3) climate influence, implementing future climate data into the simulations. The different energy vulnerability levels identified in the research are of great interest for retrofitting the existing stock as they help establish priority action guidelines. It is concluded that social housing in Andalusia currently exhibits a noticeable level of energy vulnerability in winter, with a greater severity of undercooling compared to overheating. In 2050, overheating in summer will significantly worsen, generally surpassing cooling. Despite of the Mediterranean climate, there are noticeable comfort differences between the cities analysed, with Cordoba and Granada being particularly relevant. Finally, a worse thermal performance in winter of the H-block typology was observed, which in summer occur for the linear block buildings.

Relationship between Cooling Methods and Energy Consumption for the Development of Low-Carbon Collective Housing in Indonesia

Indonesian urban population increase has led to increased energy demands and housing inventory shortages. The Ministry of Public Works and Housing (PUPR) supplies collective housing for low-income communities (MBR). The development of low-carbon collective housing has been thought to suppress the abrupt increase in household-sector energy demand and lead to mitigated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In tropical climates, it is essential to reduce the dependence on air conditioners (AC) to suppress energy consumption. Therefore, to investigate the relationship between cooling methods and energy consumption, this study surveyed the energy consumption per household and classified the existing cooling patterns of ACs, fans, and window openings in collective housing with different income groups in Indonesia. The results confirmed that the use of AC increases household energy consumption. Meanwhile, the implementation of natural ventilation (NV) showed significantly lower energy consumption with a high thermal satisfaction of more than 80% during the day and 90% at night; thus, both energy consumption reduction and indoor thermal comfort improvement could be achieved through these methods. The findings of this study serve as a starting point for verifying the energy saving effects of air conditioning habits with the consideration of socio-demographic changes for the purpose of decarbonizing collective housing, including future predictions and energy simulations.

Innovative Power Generation Technologies for Improved Household Energy Delivery and Sustainable Future: Classical Solutions from ENEA Research Centre, Trisaia Italy

The present communication is focused predominantly on important R&D solutions relevant to renewable energy technologies covering the following: (i) Innovative heat transfer fluid and thermal storage technology based on a molten salt mixture developed by ENEA for large-scale heat storage. The system uses a parabolic trough collector, compared with diathermic oil, which allows higher operating temperature, resulting in significant benefits to the plant’s operation, safety and the environment. (ii) The world’s first solar disk powered by air micro turbine developed by ENEA. (iii) An innovative steam-explosion prototype plant installed at ENEA for the pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass and the fractionation of bio components to generate ethanol from lignocellulosic material using hemicellulose and lignin. (iv) The production of hydrogen-enriched biogas using steam as the gasification agent, which helps in obtaining nearly nitrogen-free product gas and with a high calorific value of around 12 MJ/Nm3 dry gas and a high percentage of hydrogen (up to 55%) while using steam as the gasifying agent in the presence of a catalyst. (v) A rotary kiln plant, with the main purpose being to develop and optimize a thermo-chemical process to convert used rubber tyres so as to recover material and energy, as well as other solid products, with high value-added “Activated carbon” and synthesis gas.

Household energy poverty and trajectories of emotional and behavioural difficulties in children and adolescents: findings from two prospective cohort studies

PurposeThe aim of this study is to examine the association between household energy poverty (EP) and trajectories of emotional and behavioural difficulties during childhood.MethodsThe Growing up in Ireland study is two nationally representative prospective cohorts of children. The Infant Cohort (n = 11,134) were recruited at age 9 months (9 m) and followed up at 3, 5, 7 and 9 years (y). The Child Cohort (n = 8,538) were recruited at age 9 y and followed up at 13 y and 17/18 y. EP was a composite of two relative measures of EP. Emotional and behavioural difficulties were repeatedly measured using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). Linear spline multilevel models were used, adjusted for confounders to examine the association between (1) EP (9 m or 3 y) and trajectories of emotional and behavioural difficulties from 3 to 9 y in the Infant Cohort and (2) EP at 9 y and the same trajectories from 9 to 18 y in the Child Cohort.ResultsIn adjusted analyses, EP at 9 m or 3 y of age was associated with higher total difficulties score at 3 y (0.66, 95% CI 0.41, 0.91) and 5 y (0.77, 95% CI 0.48, 1.05) but not at 7 y or 9 y. EP at 9 y was associated with higher total difficulties score at 9 y (1.73, 95% CI 1.28, 2.18), with this difference reducing over time leading to 0.68 (95% CI 0.19, 1.17) at 17/18 y.ConclusionsOur study demonstrates a potential association between early life EP and emotional and behavioural difficulties that may be transient and attenuate over time during childhood. Further studies are required to replicate these findings and to better understand if these associations are causal.

Determinants of Household Energy Use for Cooking in Tanzania

Abstract This article aims to examine determinants that influence the choice of energy fuel for cooking among households in Tanzania mainland. The study employed descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse data from the 2017/18 Tanzania Household Budget Survey. Regarding the main source of energy used for cooking descriptive statistics revealed that the majority (66.5%) of the households use firewood for cooking and 24.6% use charcoal while only 8.8% use other (non-biomass fuels). This indicates that the majority (91.1%) relies on traditional fuel(biomass) for Cooking in Tanzania. Based on Inferential statistics, the chi-square test found that all independent variables except Marital status and income variables were statistically significant predictors of the study dependent variable in Tanzania at a 5 per cent significant level. On the other hand, multinomial logistic model results showed that households with few members, younger heads, male-headed, not employed heads, heads having a higher level of education, located in urban and married heads were less likely to use firewood and charcoal as the main fuel type for cooking than the other types of energy such as electricity, kerosene, industrial gas, coal, generator, and solar. The researcher recommends the use of these findings in formulating appropriate policies to improve access to affordable modern energy to lessen the environmental and health impact of biomass energy use. Keywords: Households Traditional energy, Modern Energy fuel, Multinomial Logistic Model

Popularization of cars, penetration of electric vehicles, and energy consumption of Chinese households

Based on survey data from Chinese households, this study uses a fixed effects model to examine the impact of car ownership on household energy consumption. The results show that car purchases lead to a significant 46% increase in household energy consumption costs. Purchasing cars leads to a 108% increase in household transportation expenditure (including gasoline expenditure), showing a significant direct effect, while heating costs increase by 17.1%, 12.0%, and 23.3%, respectively, representing an indirect effect. Furthermore, in regions with rapid EV growth, EVs have alleviated the promotion of cars in energy consumption, which is conducive to achieving the goal of carbon neutrality. This study helps provide measures to reduce future household energy consumption and promote the realization of carbon neutrality.

Are cities ready for low‐carbon inclusive strategies? Household energy management under heterogeneous socioeconomic conditions

AbstractEnergy is an indispensable resource for economic development and the well‐being of society. Due to heterogeneity in socioeconomic conditions, households consume direct energy and produce emissions differently. Analysing energy emissions from heterogeneous socioeconomic groups helps to identify foci for intervention and create policies for sustainable cities. This study aimed to measure household emissions in Varanasi city and investigate the impact of heterogeneous socioeconomic variables on household emissions. Varanasi represents a million‐plus rapidly urbanising city. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and non‐parametric regression revealed the relationship between end‐use energy emissions and socioeconomic variables for five income classes. Biomass‐based fuels constituted a significant proportion of energy (about 16%–20%) in low‐ to middle‐income groups, however, electricity consumption dominated in upper‐middle‐ and high‐income groups. A fuel‐stacking pattern was found, particularly in cooking activities. LPG was critical to replace solid biomass‐based fuels. To meet the present needs and absorb the impact of a growing population, energy policies and infrastructure should focus on accessibility and efficiency. An inclusive low‐carbon policy with a specialised focus on socioeconomic differences is needed for energy sustainability.

Sustainable Smart City Technologies and Their Impact on Users’ Energy Consumption Behaviour

Sustainable smart cities (SSCs) target decarbonisation by optimising energy consumption through the emerging capabilities of technology. Nevertheless, the energy consumption behaviour of end users has the potential to compromise the effectiveness of technological interventions, reflecting the importance of active social engagement in realising decarbonisation goals. Although extensive research exists on energy consumption behaviour, little is known about how technology engagement affects it, the nature of these technologies, and their role in SSC. The paper aims to identify, categorise, and investigate the smart technologies that impact household energy consumption behaviours and their integration into the larger SSC system. Following a systematic review of 60 articles from the Scopus database (2013–2023), the study found 45 smart technologies cited, with 49% affecting efficiency behaviour and 51% affecting curtailment behaviour. While these technologies inform the city administration level in the SSC framework, the role of end users remains unclear, suggesting a technocratic approach. The study proposes the Sustainable Smart City Network to facilitate a grassroots approach, identifying five key domains: government policies, smart technology adoption, smart technology engagement, smart city infrastructure, and urban sustainability. The study provides an original contribution to knowledge by unveiling the key technologies affecting energy consumption behaviour and outlining the pragmatic requirements for achieving decarbonisation through a grassroots approach.

Modelling the system dynamics of household food, water, and energy nexus effects

The food-energy-water nexus (F-E-W) serves as a crucial resource for the sustainability of households, while the efficiency of resource use largely depends on our understanding and management of the nexus including all three factors. Limited research has been conducted on this topic thus far because of the increasing complexity of home technologies and data availability. This study develops an evidence-based system dynamics model for assessing the synergy and trade-offs of the household F-E-W. By applying the system dynamics (SD) methodology, the FEW consumption and generation originating from home appliances were modelled and simulated. The model was applied to an eco-house in Tokyo, and its efficacy was validated with one-year hour-based observations of a home energy management system (HEMS). The findings revealed that water-related and food-related energy use accounted for approximately 55% of the total energy use. In addition, water-related energy use showed high uncertainty, suggesting a management potential of approximately 24% for reduction, and was significantly correlated with household carbon emissions. Moreover, this result verified that the effective management of household energy consumption requires the adept manipulation of the diverse array of energy sources employed for air and water heating, while HEMSs could play a key role in implementation.

Energy Insecurity Indicators Associated With Increased Odds Of Respiratory, Mental Health, And Cardiovascular Conditions.

Energy insecurity, defined as the inability to meet household energy needs, has multiple economic, physical, and coping dimensions that affect health. We conducted the first citywide representative survey of energy insecurity and health in a sample of 1,950 New York City residents in 2022. We compiled ten indicators that characterize energy insecurity as experienced in New York City housing settings and then examined associations between number and types of indicators and health conditions. Nearly 30percent of residents experienced three or more indicators, with significantly higher levels among Black non-Latino/a and Latino/a residents compared with White non-Latino/a residents, renters compared with owners, recent immigrants compared with those living in the United States for longer, and those in households with children compared with those with no children. Residents with three or more indicators of energy insecurity had higher odds of respiratory, mental health, and cardiovascular conditions and electric medical device dependence than residents with no indicators. Our study demonstrates that broadening the understanding of energy insecurity with context-specific metrics can help guide interventions and policies that address disparities relevant to health and energy equity.

Estimated health effects from domestic use of gaseous fuels for cooking and heating in high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analyses

Exposure to household air pollution from polluting domestic fuel (solid fuel and kerosene) represents a substantial global public health burden and there is an urgent need for rapid transition to clean domestic fuels. Gas for cooking and heating might possibly affect child asthma, wheezing, and respiratory health. The aim of this review was to synthesise the evidence on the health effects of gaseous fuels to inform policies for scalable clean household energy. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we summarised the health effects from cooking or heating with gas compared with polluting fuels (eg, wood or charcoal) and clean energy (eg, electricity and solar energy). We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library (CENTRAL), Environment Complete, GreenFile, Google Scholar, Wanfang DATA, and CNKI for articles published between Dec 16, 2020, and Feb 6, 2021. Studies eligible for inclusion had to compare gas for cooking or heating with polluting fuels (eg, wood or charcoal) or clean energy (eg, electricity or solar energy) and present data for health outcomes in general populations. Studies that reported health outcomes that were exacerbations of existing underlying conditions were excluded. Several of our reviewers were involved in screening studies, data extraction, and quality assessment (including risk of bias) of included studies; 20% of studies were independently screened, extracted and quality assessed by another reviewer. Disagreements were reconciled through discussion with the wider review team. Included studies were appraised for quality using the Liverpool Quality Assessment Tools. Key health outcomes were grouped for meta-analysis and analysed using Cochrane's RevMan software. Primary outcomes were health effects (eg, acute lower respiratory infections) and secondary outcomes were health symptoms (eg, respiratory symptoms such as wheeze, cough, or breathlessness). This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42021227092. 116 studies were included in the meta-analysis (two [2%] randomised controlled trials, 13 [11%] case-control studies, 23 [20%] cohort studies, and 78 [67%] cross-sectional studies), contributing 215 effect estimates for five grouped health outcomes. Compared with polluting fuels, use of gas significantly lowered the risk of pneumonia (OR 0·54, 95% CI 0·38-0·77; p=0·00080), wheeze (OR 0·42, 0·30-0·59; p<0·0001), cough (OR 0·44, 0·32-0·62; p<0·0001), breathlessness (OR 0·40, 0·21-0·76; p=0·0052), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR 0·37, 0·23-0·60; p<0·0001), bronchitis (OR 0·60, 0·43-0·82; p=0·0015), pulmonary function deficit (OR 0·27, 0·17-0·44; p<0·0001), severe respiratory illness or death (OR 0·27, 0·11-0·63; p=0·0024), preterm birth (OR 0·66, 0·45-0·97; p=0·033), and low birth weight (OR 0·70, 0·53-0·93; p=0·015). Non-statistically significant effects were observed for asthma in children (OR 1·04, 0·70-1·55; p=0·84), asthma in adults (OR 0·65, 0·43-1·00; p=0·052), and small for gestational age (OR 1·04, 0·89-1·21; p=0·62). Compared with electricity, use of gas significantly increased risk of pneumonia (OR 1·26, 1·03-1·53; p=0·025) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR 1·15, 1·06-1·25; p=0·0011), although smaller non-significant effects were observed for higher-quality studies. In addition, a small increased risk of asthma in children was not significant (OR 1·09, 0·99-1·19; p=0·071) and no significant associations were found for adult asthma, wheeze, cough, and breathlessness (p>0·05). A significant decreased risk of bronchitis was observed (OR 0·87, 0·81-0·93; p<0·0001). Switching from polluting fuels to gaseous household fuels could lower health risk and associated morbidity and mortality in resource-poor countries where reliance on polluting fuels is greatest. Although gas fuel use was associated with a slightly higher risk for some health outcomes compared with electricity, gas is an important transitional option for health in countries where access to reliable electricity supply for cooking or heating is not feasible in the near term. WHO.

Powered by gentrification: The uneven development of residential rooftop solar in Atlanta, Georgia

Rooftop solar is widely seen to be a crucial piece of the puzzle for addressing both greenhouse gas emissions and reducing household energy burdens. But studies from across the United States have consistently pointed to inequalities in the adoption of rooftop solar that limit its ability to address these overlapping problems. This paper examines these social and spatial inequalities in rooftop solar adoption in Atlanta, Georgia, using a novel dataset of residential rooftop solar installation permits from 2018 through 2022. Through this analysis, we demonstrate that while more affluent and white neighborhoods are home to the majority of residential rooftop solar installations within the city, the most significant growth in rooftop solar in recent years has been in majority Black neighborhoods. But by combining these records with an analysis of property-level characteristics and transaction histories, we are able to understand how the installation of rooftop solar, especially in predominantly poorer and Blacker communities, is not, in fact, being driven by a narrowing of racial inequalities in rooftop solar adoption or a greater concern for energy justice. Instead, as gentrification unfolds in previously marginalized neighborhoods, these newcomers become the vanguard of rooftop solar adoption rather than longstanding residents who would have the most to gain from such technologies. This paper ultimately clarifies the distinction between spatial redistribution and social redistribution of renewable energy, and the need for both finer-grained analyses of inequalities in clean energy access and adoption and a greater commitment towards both energy and housing justice.

Impact of Economic Growth on Carbon Emissions In Pakistan

Pakistan is a developing country that seeks economic growth. However, Pakistan needs to analyze the environmental cost associated with economic growth and adapt to sustainable growth accordingly. The data spanning 41 years was extracted from the World Bank and Our World In Data, which was then analyzed. This paper studied the relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions in Pakistan. It analyzed the impact of economic growth on carbon emissions by conducting a time-series data analysis and applying the Engle and Granger cointegration approach to examine the long-run relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Error Correction Model (ECM) was also applied to study the short-run impact of economic growth on carbon emissions. The results of this study reveal that (i) energy consumption per capita has a strong and positive relation with carbon emissions in the short-run and long-run, whereas (ii) GDP has a weak but positive relationship with carbon emissions in the short-run and long-run. The results also show that GDP and energy consumption per capita cause carbon emissions to increase faster in the long-run. The study concluded that long-run adjustment is possible since the ECM model predicts that 37.76% of the long and short-run discrepancy will be corrected within a year. The study recommends that increasing the share of hydel and renewable energy in Pakistan’s energy mix and revamping the existing power distribution system to minimize power losses will mitigate the carbon emissions caused by energy consumption. Moreover, the adoption of sustainable practices by manufacturers, installing catalytic converters in manufacturing plants, and incentivizing the use of renewable energy for manufacturers and households will mitigate the carbon emissions caused by GDP growth.

Increased home energy use: unintended outcomes of energy efficiency focused policy

ABSTRACT Residential energy policies for individual dwellings predominantly provide minimum design standards for thermal performance and energy efficiency on a square metre basis. This paper quantifies predicted dwelling energy use on a national scale to enable evaluation of the effectiveness of this policy model. Utilizing Australia as a case study, analysis of 580,956 thermal energy design certificates for new detached dwellings verifies that, although minimum energy efficiency design standards were achieved, predicted energy use for thermal comfort increased by 10.4% per dwelling and 5.6% nationally in 2022 compared to 2018. The study examines the impact of both the number and floor area of new dwellings on dwelling energy use and highlights the disparate jurisdictional outcomes resulting from inconsistent implementation of national policy across multi-state governance. To deliver reductions in household energy use it is imperative that residential energy policies target household energy use, rather than only energy efficiency, of new dwellings, of which floor area is a key determinant. Furthermore, to achieve global climate change objectives, there is a need for complementary policy mechanisms that consider the collective energy use of the residential dwelling sector.

Research of Stirling engines applications in vehicle, electricity, heating and cooling

Natural resources are becoming more and more scarce while pollution continues to increase. It is imperative to reduce emissions and improve energy efficiency. As an efficient, low-emission machine, the Stirling engine may be an answer on the road to emission reduction and improved efficiency. Stirling engine has been used in some areas, such as nuclear-powered submarine engines, combined heat and power and Stirling cryocoolers. However, there are still several problems that cannot be ignored in Sterling generators themselves. Stirling generators, characterized by high efficiency and potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, face challenges, including high material and assembly costs, complex waste heat treatment processes, and the need for durable, high-temperature resistant materials. Despite current limitations, ongoing research aims to enhance conversion efficiency, minimize size, and lower manufacturing costs, with promising applications in various sectors, including transportation and household energy, representing a significant stride towards green energy power generation in the future.