Haciendo hincapie en la afirmacion de Arjun Appadurai (1988) de que los antropologos 'encarcelan espacialmente' a los llamados 'nativos', afirmo que los 'encarcelamientos espaciales' continuan afectando a los inmigrantes, que describo como un nuevo tipo de 'nativo'. En su novela O Vento Assobiando nas Gruas (2002), la autora portuguesa Lidia Jorge describe a cada una de tres generaciones de inmigrantes caboverdianos a Portugal como 'encarceladas' de maneras diferentes. En este articulo, reuno estudios antropologicos y mi analisis de la novela de Jorge para examinar la manera en que fuerzas exogenas y endogenas 'encarcelan' a los que actualmente inmigran a Portugal, tambien para investigar las maneras diferentes en que los inmigrantes habitan o escapan de sus carceles metaforicas, y, finalmente, para explorar los lazos que existen entre la experiencia que uno tiene de la marginalizacion y su concepcion de la identidad.

The article argues that the concept of risk should be at the heart of any discussion on partnership-based approaches to employment relations. It draws attention to two sets of organizational-related risk - distributive risks, related to material and environmental factors and exchanges, and political risks, related to organizational practices and legitimacy. These risks are shown to emerge from both exogenous and endogenous forces, and to have become more problematic because of the macro political and socio-economic context of workplace change. Given this changing context of risk, we argue that ‘new’ partnership relations between labour and management are fundamentally unstable. We contend that the concept of risk has to be approached in a much more explicit, focused and subtle manner than is apparent in the current debate on partnership, if we are to understand the challenges and contradictions underpinning the emergence of new industrial relations systems.

The process of transformation of state socialist societies has been explained in different ways: revolution, ‘recombinations’ and ‘system change’. Elites and amorphous social forces, such as national movements, feature in theories as major agents of change. Classes have also played a major role in the process of change. Class analysis is distinguished by two different approaches: a political mode, in which class is dependent on political parties and ideology; and a sociological mode, which conceptualizes class as a determinant of political interest. In the latter sense, on the basis of empirical survey data, there are clear boundaries based on inequalities between class groups, there is a consciousness of class and an awareness of other classes. While it is conceded that other forms of self-identification (such as nationality) may be concurrent with that of class, the transformation of the post-communist countries has involved a revolutionary process in which endogenous and exogenous class forces have played a major role. This work is part of a study of Transformation from State Socialism, supported by the Leverhulme Foundation. His recent books include The Legacy of State Socialism (2002), and Russian Banking: Evolution, Problems and Prospects (2002).

Brittle fractures and ductile shear bands in argillaceous sediments: inferences from Oligocene Boom Clay (Belgium)

Abstract Institutional economics traces its roots to the works, beginning in the late nineteenth century, of Thorstein Veblen, John R. Commons and Wesley C. Mitchell. They believed that orthodox economic theory, based on deduction from axioms, was not a proper foundation to study the economy. They attempted to establish relations between economic actors as defined by important economic institutions. Classical theory, on the other hand, is based on natural law rather than human organization. Natural law provided a fixed structure, and this reduced uncertainty in economic theory. Change was within the structure but the structure was always stable. Institutional economists examine institutions that provide economic order, and they study the endogenous forces that cause these institutions to evolve. The author suggests that these are some of the same elements that describe system dynamics. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This article examines the mechanisms underlying the worldwide diffusion of organizational practices. We suggest that the two main theoretical explanations in the diffusion literature, efficiency and legitimation, can be complementary. More specifically, we argue that endogenous forces seek to enhance the efficiency of existing systems, while exogenous forces seek to increase legitimation. To assess our argument, we explore the worldwide diffusion of codes of good governance. These codes are a set of ‘best practice’ recommendations regarding the behavior and structure of a firm’s board of directors issued to compensate for deficiencies in a country’s corporate governance system regarding the protection of shareholders’ rights. We have collected data on codes of good governance for 49 countries. We operationalize efficiency needs in terms of the characteristics of shareholder protection, and legitimation pressures in terms of government liberalization, economic openness, and presence of foreign institutional investors. Our analysis supports the argument that both efficiency needs and legitimation pressures lead to code adoption. In addition, our empirical results show that countries with legal systems with strong shareholder protection rights tend to be more prone to develop codes, possibly for efficiency reasons. This article contributes to organization theory by illustrating that he diffusion of codes fosters both cross-national corporate governance convergence as well as some degree of country hybridization, particularly depending on the type of code issuer.

There has been a continuous discussion since the second half of the 1980s on the transformation of the most important political, institutional, and social structures within states, especially European states. If a polity is defined as the various spheres—political, institutional and social—that constitute states, then it may be argued that changes on a European and global scale, along with transformations that affect the sub-national level of government, have given rise to a series of structural constraints and factors that shape political and social life well beyond the borders of the national state. It is a discussion that has not spared Italy, especially given the scale of change experienced in the 1990s. This is not to say that internal factors no longer exert an element of agency. Rather, endogenous forces need to be placed within a broader context. The links between exogenous influences and endogenous dynamics might help explain the continuity and change of the structures of various national polities. The events of 2003, presented in the chapters that follow, provide ample material in this respect.

Configuration of the earth surface is molded by the interaction of endogenous and exogenous forces. The outcome of the interaction usually has the shape of special charracter. Configuration charracter is then applied to grouping of more simple form called landform. It so happens that one of the landform function is to make geomorphology research more easier. Que of the earth surface configuration is molded by wind force the result of this activity is called the landform which is originally molded by wind process. There are two folds function of wind process i.l: erosion (= coracoid process and deposifronal force). Coracoid process usually takes place on vertical as well as horizontal plane. Coracoid on vertical plane will have the shape of yardang, while on horizontal plane has the shape of pillars, needless, and zenguen. It so happens that depositional wind will shape ripples, sanddunes, and loess.

Defining forces that are associated with shoulder dystocia: The use of a mathematic dynamic computer model

Major research and academic libraries in four Central and Eastern European countries (Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia) have undergone significant changes since their socio-political transformations that began in the early 1990s. In-depth interviews with forty-nine (49) key library policymakers were conducted in 1999. The data suggests that cooperation and resource sharing are at the heart of the institutional changes taking place in the libraries in the four countries. Commonalities and differences between and among the countries were identified along four dimensions: centralisation vs. decentralisation, individual vs. collective goals, product vs. process orientation, and global vs. local considerations. A typology of cooperation models (‘artificial,’ ‘contested,’ ‘directed,’ and ‘voluntary’ cooperation) was devised that reflects the changing nature and visions of cooperation as reported by the respondents interviewed. The results raise questions about the exogenous vs. endogenous forces that contribute to the adoption of new attitudes and values toward cooperation and resource sharing.

Abstract Upland environments are particularly vulnerable to the stresses of climate change. The strength and persistence of such forces are not easy to measure and hence comparison of climate impacts with anthropogenic impacts has remained problematic. This paper attempts to demonstrate the nature of human impact on forest cover and flooding in the Annecy Petit Lac Catchment in pre-Alpine Haute Savoie, France, between 1730 and 2000. Local documentary sources and a pollen record provided a detailed history of forest cover and management, making it possible to plot changes in forest cover against local and regional precipitation records, and their individual and combined impacts on flooding. A main period of large-scale, uniform and rapid deforestation in the catchment was identified in the early nineteenth century, but sub-catchment patterns of reforestation and regeneration have varied up to the present. The period of deforestation was accompanied by demographic expansion and regional scale exogenous forces, such as small scale industrial development, foreign occupation, war, caveats and laws, acting alongside local scale endogenous forces and land fragmentation, agricultural crisis, and the desire for pasture. These all produced conflict between individual needs and those of communities and resulted in localised changes in forest cover. Joint phases of deforestation and flooding are more evident in individual second order tributaries than the whole catchment, but there appears to be no obvious or simple causal link between forest cover change, climate anomalies and flooding.

Asset pricing in an intertemporal partially-revealing rational expectations equilibrium

This article applies a novel approach to analysis of the transition to the market economy in Vietnam, a country with a political economy that draws upon South-East Asian, Sinic and Leninist cultural elements. This was a 'conservative' transition, in the sense that no shift in political regime occurred. Understanding transition as a process where endogenous forces drive and resource institutional change, and far from dependent upon policy shifts, the article argues that it relied heavily upon two sets of phenomena. The first may be understood in terms of the creation and seeking out of economic rents, in the 'neoclassical' sense of resources available 'below economic costs'. When rents result from institutional obstacles to competition, institutional change can support relatively costless output gains. I argue for Vietnam that as the economic system switched from plan to market, so rent seeking shifted away from advantageous access to resources for plan implementation, to switching resources into forms that supported market-oriented activity. This 'rent switching' (RS) relied upon adaptive social relations, comparable to the 'competitive clientelism' of the SEA studies literature, that were preserved and augmented during transition. It also permitted mobilisation of resources derived from static efficiency gains. This framework contrasts with a second, more 'classical' in nature, that concentrates upon the creation of appropriable resources (ARs) and contestation over them. These help explain the medium and longer term, and how ways of appropriating resources supported the political economy of systemic change. At root, this is then to do with the emergence of factor markets (land, labour and capital), class formation and thus broader social and cultural change. The article thus argues that different economic theories provide useful insights into the social as well as the economic implications and nature of the transition to a market economy. Given that static efficiency gains, whilst significant in relative impact, tend to act over the short term, and, since growth processes take decades, the 'neoclassical' approach is ultimately less important than the 'classical' one.

Human evolution consists of chronological changes in gene regulation of a continuous and relatively stable genome, activated by hormones, the production of which is intermittently affected by endogenous and exogenous forces. Periodic variations in the gonadal androgen, testosterone, and the adrenal androgen, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), significantly participated in all hominid transformations. The hominid characteristics of early Australopithecines are primarily a result of increased testosterone. The first significant cold of the early Pleistocene resulted in an increase in DHEA that simultaneously produced Homo and the robust Australopithecines. Subsequent Pleistocene climatic changes and differential reproduction produced changes in DHEA and testosterone ratios that caused extinction of the robust Australopithecines and further changes and continuation of Homo. Changes in testosterone and DHEA produce allometric and behavioral changes that are identifiable and vigorous in modern populations.

Little is known about whether or how plant cells regulate the position of heavy organelles that sediment toward gravity. Dark-grown protonemata of the moss Ceratodon purpureus displays a complex plastid zonation in that only some amyloplasts sediment along the length of the tip cell. If gravity is the major force determining the position of amyloplasts that sediment, then these plastids should be randomly distributed in space. Instead, amyloplasts were clustered in the subapical region in microgravity. Cells rotated on a clinostat on earth had a roughly similar non-random plastid distribution. Subapical clusters were also found in ground controls that were inverted and kept stationary, but the distribution profile differed considerably due to amyloplast sedimentation. These findings indicate the existence of as yet unknown endogenous forces and mechanisms that influence amyloplast position and that are normally masked in stationary cells grown on earth. It is hypothesized that a microtubule-based mechanism normally compensates for g-induced drag while still allowing for regulated amyloplast sedimentation.

A retrospective analysis of the phenomenon of industrialization allows one to sort out a Mediterranean type characterized by the coexistence of industrial districts and growth poles and by an emergence, still very limited, of high-tech centers. The issue of location factors of industrial activities confirms the marginal relevance of determinist interpretations in the Mediterranean Basin where «industrial miracles» have flourished since the 19th century. The idiographic perspective on industry was superseded by nomothetic aspirations characterized by recourse to quantitative analysis and taking into account the logic and spatial representation of actors. The systematic perspective henceforth gained a foothold to interpret the attractiveness, no longer of places, but of territories of reception. The concept of industry was then substituted by that of productive system in order to better understand the relationship between industrialization and development. The notion of the industrial transition is validated by geographical observation and instrumentalized by state actors who are responsible for territorial development. Exogenous initiatives, initially criticized, is joined today by endogenous forces to guide local productive systems and assure their continuity.

This paper gives a chronological analysis of the dynamic interplay of endogenous and exogenous forces that have created the complexity of identity politics in contemporary Taiwanese society. It not only elaborates the various versions of identity emerging in Taiwan's politics, but also illustrates the chronological characteristics of identity politics present at each stage of Taiwan's developmental process since 1949. In conclusion, it comes back to the question of Taiwan independence, or put it another way, the imperative of the denial of a Chinese identity. Above all, this paper argues that lying behind all the obsessions for a new Taiwan-centered identity is primarily the impulse to fight for a sovereignty that can guarantee an unconstrained international space, rather than a nationalist motive to cut off all the cultural and racial identification with China.

It was to be expected that New Zealand's radical change from a simple-plurality, single-constituency system to a proportional electoral system would produce a multi-party rather than a two-party parliamentary system. Analysis of the mixed-member proportional system's impact on the number and significance of parties, parliamentary cohesion and fragmentation, the power relationship between parties and government, and issue dimensions demonstrates that the impact of the exogenously derived incentives have been moderated by endogenous systemic and institutional forces and, also, by societal characteristics and habits. The brief period since the introduction of proportional representation to New Zealand thus provides an interesting example of how much change can be expected in the short term from electoral system change.

Mathematic modeling of forces associated with shoulder dystocia: A comparison of endogenous and exogenous sources

The site of lesion, spontaneous healing, onset mechanism, and magnetic resonance imaging findings of 51 knees in 38 patients with osteochondritis dissecans involving the femoral condyle in the growth stage were investigated. tercondylar site, and the remaining 1/4 were in other sites. Compared with those in the other sites, the lesions in a medial intercondylar site had a lower healing rate and required a longer time to heal. T2 weighted images of the lesions showed a progression from low signal areas to the appearance of a high signal line at the fragment to parent to bone interface, to a high signal double line at the interface and parent-bone surface, or to disappearance of the line. Magnetic resonance imaging often revealed discoid menisci or meniscal tears in patients with lesions in the lateral condyle, suggesting that endogenous forces play an important role in the onset of osteochondritis dissecans.