End-of-life Products Research Articles

A multi-objective evolutionary algorithm for EOL product recovery optimization: turbocharger case study

Recently, the importance of the end-of-life (EOL) product recovery process has been rising since the return rate of products is increasing due to strict environmental regulations on products and economic reasons. In addition to this, the advent of emerging product identification technologies makes product lifecycle data visible at EOL phase. In this regard, the optimization of product recovery processes becomes highlighted as a challenging issue of EOL. At the inspection phase after disassembly, each part can have various EOL recovery options such as re-use, remanufacturing, and disposal. Depending on the selected EOL options of parts, the recovery value of an EOL product will be different. Hence, it is essential to develop a decision-making method that can select the best EOL options of parts for maximizing the recovery value of an EOL product. Although some previous works have focused on improving EOL operations, there has been a lack of research which dealt with EOL product recovery optimization in a quantitative manner. To cope with this limitation, in this study, we focus on a selection problem of EOL product recovery options for a turbocharger case, for maximizing its recovery value which includes both recovery cost and quality. To solve the problem efficiently, we develop a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm (MOEA). To show the effectiveness of our algorithm, we carry out computational experiments.

Optimizing Disassembly and Recycling Process for EOL LCD-Type Products: A Heuristic Method

The recycling process for end-of-life (EOL) products generally consists of disassembly, the material recovery process following shredding, and the treatment of hazardous and nonhazardous wastes. A large volume of literature addresses the optimization of EOL product recycling with a focus on these three steps. This study proposes a two-stage heuristic method to simulate and identify an optimal disassembly sequence as well as a break point between the disassembly and shredding processes. With this heuristic method, a ldquonearlyrdquo optimal disassembly and recycling process can be found for any given set of cost/benefit parameters such as unit disassembly cost, price of reclaimed materials, and unit cost of waste disposal. An example illustrating optimized disassembly and recycling processes for EOL LCD monitors is presented.

자동차 재제조 부품에 대한 환경성 평가

The remanufacturing, which is re-producing technology using by end of life product as raw material with same quality of new born product, is one of the most efficient way to reduce usage of energy and resource, and it is also known as 'ideal solution for environmentally sound and sustainable development (ESSD)'. The domestic research of environmental assessment on the remanufacturing product, however, is not been performed widely. On this study, LCA (life cycle assessment) and eco-efficiency was performed for remanufacturing automotive parts, starter and alternator, to compare environmental profile between new born and remanufacturing products.

A tool to implement sustainable end-of-life strategies in the product development phase

Responding to constantly more demanding European legislation, notably for electrical and electronic equipment, worn-out vehicles or hazardous substances, manufacturers have to develop End of Life (EoL) strategies. The challenge today is to assess which “product EoL process” would be profitable for an enterprise given the business model in place. Most of the Original Equipment Manufacturers recycle or subcontract reverse logistic and EoL treatments. Recycling is currently the most common solution but it is far from meeting the goals of Sustainable Development. We believe that, integrating constraints from EoL strategies into the early phases of design is one important aspect that needs to be improved. We are currently combining this idea with principles from concurrent engineering to develop design aids which permits designers to compare their products to “Remanufacturable Product Profiles”. However, conscious those EoL solutions often involve several strategies; it is now envisaged to develop tools to help designers make optimal decisions while designing a product considering 3R strategies: Reuse, Remanufacture and Recycle. In this paper, our vision of why and how to integrate EoL strategies in the early design phases is presented, and what tools to apply 3R strategies are envisaged, considering the evolving architecture of the product, and the translation of transversal information into design criteria.

The supply chain implications of recycling

Until recently, end-of-life (EOL) product management was the purview of a small number of firms that could make money out of recycling and/or remanufacturing. Now, changing customer expectations and stringent product take-back regulations are forcing many goods producing organizations to confront EOL product management, even in cases in which there is no clear economic incentive for doing so. This article presents a framework that highlights the supply chain implications for firms forced into EOL product management where recycling is the only viable option. Discussed are the various recycling options available to managers, as well as the strategic implications of each of these choices.

Selective Disassembly Sequencing: A Methodology for the Disassembly of End-of-Life Products

Disassembly planning has become an important strategic issue in order to reduce the environmental impact and increase the value of end-of-life (EOL) products. However, in order to make the recovery of EOL products viable, optimal disassembly sequencing has to be determined for each reusable component. In this paper, a selective disassembly methodology for EOL products is presented, which was developed by reversing and modifying the methodology developed by Nevins and Whitney (1989) for assembly. In the new methodology, the disassembly sequence generation and selective part recovery are largely performed by a special computer software. A number of product case studies were used to prove the concept and demonstrate the efficiency of the methodology.

A decomposition of the end of life process

New legislation on electronics waste in Europe will set formal requirements for product end of life (EOL) processes. These include producer responsibility for obsolete product take-back, pre-treatment and recycling. A structure is needed for the complex interactions between technical, environmental, socio-economic and legislative factors in product take-back and EOL treatment. EOL process can be divided into three distinct stages with different characteristics and stakeholders. The first stage is the organization of an effective take-back process. The second is the structural pre-treatment and fragmentation of the product. The third stage is the recycling and disposal processes of the product material content. In this paper we propose a simplified economic model for an EOL process for mobile terminals. We use the model to create a step-by-step EOL process. Furthermore, we present through examples, technical as well as engineering process solutions in promoting economic implementation of the EOL processes.

Disassembly sequencing using genetic algorithm

At the end-of-life (EOL) of a product, there are several options available for its processing including reuse, remanufacturing, recycling and disposing. In almost all cases, a certain level of disassembly may be necessary. Thus, finding an optimal (or near optimal) disassembly sequence is crucial to increasing the efficiency of the process. Disassembly operations are labor intensive, can be costly, have unique characteristics and cannot be considered as the reverse of assembly operations. Since the complexity of determining the best disassembly sequence increases with increase in the number of parts of the product, it is extremely crucial that an efficient methodology for disassembly sequencing be developed. In this paper, we present a genetic algorithm for disassembly sequencing of EOL products. A case example is considered to demonstrate the functionality of the algorithm.

A selective disassembly methodology for end‐of‐life products

PurposeAims to develop a selective disassembly methodology for generating an optimum disassembly sequence for end‐of‐life (EOL) products.Design/methodology/approachThe paper presents a selective disassembly methodology for EOL products. In order to achieve this, Nevins and Whitney's methodology for assembly was modified. In addition, a Java‐based software was developed to speed up the generation of all possible disassembly sequences.FindingsFinds that the methodology developed by Nevins and Whitney for assembly is applicable to disassembly process. In addition, the winnowing process for disassembly is much easier than for assembly because of the selective disassembly approach, which automatically provides a significant constraint on possible sequences.Research limitations/implicationsProvides an easy to use and visual disassembly sequence generation tool for end‐of‐life products.Practical implicationsDisassembly is one of the significant cost drivers in achieving close loop manufacturing. Application of the methodology proposed in this paper will significantly reduce the disassembly time by providing a disassembly sequence for the selected components with reuse potential.Originality/valueProvides a graphical representation of disassembly sequences at different stages of the process, which allows the user to visualize the disassembly process.

A simulation model of the comminution–liberation of recycling streams: Relationships between product design and the liberation of materials during recycling

End-of-Life (EOL) products can be considered to be industrial ores, since the minerals (materials can be considered as minerals) contained are recovered, processed and reintroduced in the material production systems as industrial ores. Therefore, the principles used in classical minerals processing can be applied to describe the comminution and liberation of EOL products during recycling. Similarly as for natural ores, particle size reduction and liberation have an important role in the quality of the recycling streams and on the possibilities for their further processing and reintroduction in the resource cycles. A simulation model is presented that describes the relationships between product design and the liberation level attained by shredding. The model simulates the comminution and liberation phenomena as a function of the product design variables. From the analysis of experimental samples, sensitivity analysis and simulations, relationships are illustrated and discussed. The breakage behaviour of End-of-Life (EOL) products differs largely from these natural minerals. Therefore, although many definitions can be adapted from classical minerals processing, a different approach is required in the modelling of the comminution–liberation of EOL products. This is the first step in the development of these type of models, and much experimental work is required for further development. The simulation results using a passenger vehicle as example show that during product design, the materials and joints among them can be chosen to obtain the best possible liberation and the lowest possible contamination. Therefore, industrial ores can be ‘designed’ for recycling, to reduce recycling losses and optimise resource efficiency. The aim is to implement this knowledge in the product design stage of defining materials and connections.

Multicriteria decision-aid approach for product end-of-life alternative selection

The selection of the best compromise alternative for treating a product at its end of life (EOL) is presented. Each EOL alternative has its own consequences from an economical, environmental and social point of view. The criteria used to determine these consequences are often contradictory and not equally important. In the presence of multiple conflicting criteria, an optimal EOL alternative rarely exists. Hence, the decision-maker should seek the best compromise EOL alternative. The present paper proposes a multicriteria decision-aid (MCDA) approach to aid the decision-maker in selecting the best compromise EOL alternative on the basis of his/her preferences and the performances of EOL alternatives with respect to the relevant environmental, social and economic criteria. This approach is important because it allows the user to consider various conflicting criteria simultaneously and it takes into account his/her preferences. The paper analyses the most important aspects of this approach such as the constitution of a set of EOL alternatives, the selection of a list of relevant criteria to evaluate the EOL alternatives and the choice of an appropriate multicriteria decision-aid method. A case study is provided to illustrate how the proposed approach can be used for product EOL alternative selection in real-world applications.

Biomimetic design for remanufacture in the context of design for assembly

In this paper, a biomimetic design method is applied to a specific problem in design for remanufacture. First summarized is remanufacture as an option to disposal at product end of life, and how products may be designed for ease of remanufacture. Next identified is a contradiction between a design-for-remanufacture strategy and design-for-assembly preferences. Specifically, making failure-prone features into separate parts facilitates remanufacture but results in additional parts to assemble. An example involving snap fits as a method of fastening and joining is used to illustrate the contradiction. To obtain ideas on how to address this contradiction, a biomimetic search method was used to find biological phenomena that are analogous to remanufacture. One such phenomenon is described and used to develop a concept that satisfies both design-for-remanufacture and design-for-assembly preferences.

Strategic Management of Product Recovery

A growing concern for durable product manufacturers is how to manage the products they manufacture when they reach their end of life (EOL). In part, this attention is motivated by a growing number of countries across Europe and East Asia that are enacting legislation that imposes greater responsibilities on manufacturers for managing their EOL products. Even in non-regulated markets, however, some manufacturers are engaging in product recovery to reduce production costs, enhance brand image, meet changing customer expectations, protect aftermarkets, and preempt pending legislation or regulations. This article explains when manufacturers should engage in product recovery efforts through partnerships, alliances, or vertical integration and when they should leave this task to independent firms. Technologies that enhance the productivity of product recovery, the level of uncertainty associated with reverse logistics, diverse manufacturing-related capabilities, the uniqueness of recovered assets, and the desire to avoid dependence on other organizations are key determinants that shape the industrial organization of EOL product recovery.

Material and heavy metal balance in a recycling facility for home electrical appliances

Collection and recycling of home electrical appliances was started in Japan in 2001 under a new recycling law. The law is aimed at promoting material recycling and at reducing the amount of waste to be landfilled. End of life products are processed by manual disassembly, shredding, and separation in 38 recycling facilities. The authors conducted a questionnaire survey and interviewed at some facilities to obtain information on process flow and material balance. By using the detailed records offered by one facility and by estimating the composition of recovered components, the material balance in the facilities was determined for four typical recycling processes. The heavy metal content of the recovered components was analyzed, then metal flow in the process was determined for each scenario. As a result, it was concluded that emissions to the environment of most heavy metals have been substantially reduced by the new recycling system, while a modest improvement in the rate of material recovery has been achieved.

Multiple criteria decision aid for selecting the best product end of life scenario

There exist several scenarios for treating an end of life (EOL) product and each scenario has different environmental, social and economic consequences. An EOL scenario can be better than another with respect to one criterion but worse with respect to another criterion. To compare EOL scenarios with respect to conflicting criteria, a multiple criteria decision aid (MCDA) method should be used. In this paper, we present the MCDA approach developed in the project AEOLOS (An End-of-Life of Product Systems) for supporting users in the selection of the best scenario for treating an EOL product on the basis of their preferences and the performances of the EOL scenarios with respect to relevant criteria.

The “Cycle of Iron”

Recycled steel accounts for 46% of the iron resource of the steel industry in the world and has generated a new production route, based on the electric arc furnace, that produces 33% of the world steel output. Recycling is fully integrated in the market economy and has gained experience and technologies that allow 75% of the steel of end of life products to be effectively recycled. Furthermore, allowing for a modicum of cautions, this recycling is sustainable, which means that it may be repeated indefinitely, a feature that can be claimed by few materials. The use of scrap to produce steel requires 75% less energy than the integrated production route, that means 92% less energy than what is required to produce the same amount of aluminium. The electric arc furnace also allows the recycling of zinc, which is easily separated from the galvanized steel sheets used in construction and automotive industry. A large project federating the contributions of industry and academia, led by USINOR, has been carried out from 1995 to 2000 to support the sustainable recycling of steel: the main results of the “Iron Cycle” are reported in this paper.

Computer-based product structure analysis for technical goods regarding optimal end-of-life strategies

The environmental consciousness of customers as well as legislative regulations force producers to consider the product end of life within the product design. Consequently, additional design aspects are leading to the need for specific support tools, which enable design for disassembly and recycling. The approach presented shows a computer-based methodology for a product structure analysis regarding the determination of economically optimal end-of-life strategies for technical goods. Based on a product model, a model of end-of-life processes and a simulation of disassembly, the economically optimal end-of-life strategy of a complex product is calculated. Owing to the huge number of disassembly options of complex products, some methodical approaches for the reduction of computation efforts have been developed. Further approaches for the detection of improvement potentials regarding the product end-of-life behaviour consider the product structure, the joining technique and the material compatibility. The different aspects are analysed and compared with the modelled end-of-life processes using special characteristic values. The methodologies developed have been implemented in a software tool that contains the respective input interface, performs the computations and displays models and results mainly in a graphical manner.

Towards a taxonomy of resource recovery from end-of-life products

Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are increasingly facing pressures, from many sources, to take back and recover their end-of-life (EOL) products. These pressures reflect social values and are likely to become more widespread. Manufacturing companies, however, are not in the business of recovery and if they are to meet these increasing pressures and legal obligations they must acquire an understanding of the associated issues and decisions that they face. A taxonomy of resource recovery would provide a framework for such an understanding, and decision support. The utility of a taxonomy is multiple: it facilitates an understanding of EOL product recovery; it assists in communication; and it can highlight problems. A taxonomy facilitates understanding and communication of the essential features of a type and supports scientific and technological analysis and problem resolution. The author has developed, and been involved in the development of a number of taxonomies of resource recovery, these are presented in this paper. A taxonomy of electronic and electrical manufacturing situations from a resource recovery perspective is also described. This is a taxonomy of manufacturing situations from a recovery perspective, and focuses on the electronics industry, which is facing legislation mandating take-back and recovery.

The resource recovery level decision for end-of-life products

Resource recovery from end-of-life (EOL) products is becoming increasingly engaged in by companies as a response to customer, consumer, government and social pressures, the electronics industry cites competitor pressures as being the main driver of EOL product take-back and recovery. Recovery can occur at three levels; i.e. product, part and material. Each of these options has economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages depending on the product type and a host of other influencing factors. The work described in this paper supports the decision as to the most favourable route from a cost and value perspective, a software model that provides such support is also described.

Is There Life after Retirement?

What is the meaning of retirement? Not just a gold watch and increased pottering in the garden, the end of work means the end of productive life for some, a new start for others. There are constructive responses that individuals, organizations, and society can make to ease the retirement process and reduce its dysfunctional effects.