Emission Reduction Targets Research Articles

A Conceptual Approach to Defining a Carbon Tax in the Transport Sector in Indonesia: Economic, Social, and Environmental Aspects

The implementation of a carbon tax in the transportation sector aims to reduce carbon emissions and encourage the transition to sustainable mobility amid increasing urbanization. The transportation sector is one of the largest contributors of carbon emissions in Indonesia, requiring effective policies to reduce its environmental impacts. Therefore, this study aims to find a more optimal carbon tax formula that is in accordance with Indonesia’s socio-economic conditions. The approach used includes analysis of transportation emission data, the economic impact of different carbon tax schemes, and tax revenue allocation strategies to support green infrastructure and sustainable transportation. The results of the study indicate that an adaptive carbon tax formula in the transportation sector is able to balance the economic burden, emission reduction targets, social justice, behavioral changes, and revenue allocation for green infrastructure, thus ensuring a just and sustainable transition. A progressive carbon tax, based on vehicle emission levels and fuel types, can encourage the transition to low-emission vehicles without excessively burdening low-income communities. With this approach, carbon tax policy functions not only as a fiscal instrument but also as a transformative strategy in creating an environmentally friendly and equitable transportation system.

Understanding the environmental impact of residential electricity consumption in Brazil: integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches with Life Cycle Assessment.

Understanding the environmental impact of residential electricity consumption in Brazil: integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches with Life Cycle Assessment.

Climate policy upscaling: the role of policy design in removing barriers to stringency

ABSTRACT Countries must increase the stringency of their domestic climate change mitigation policies if they are to meet their national emission reduction targets. However, governments face many barriers to enhancing the stringency of their climate policies. Understanding the mechanisms through which these barriers to climate policy stringency can be overcome will help policy makers design more-effective policies – including policies that are primed for future increases in stringency, or upscaling. This paper examines Australia’s upscaling of its primary industrial sector mitigation policy – the Safeguard Mechanism – to understand how barriers to stringency were overcome. The paper first identifies barriers to stringency in the existing policy change and climate policy design literatures. It then uses process tracing and a Likert-scale questionnaire administered to Australian climate policy practitioners and experts to empirically examine how initial policy design settings in the Australian case helped to overcome identified barriers, paving the way for the upscaling event. Our findings suggest that higher levels of climate policy stringency can be supported through early policy design choices and a phased implementation approach that weaken barriers arising from the discourse around a policy, legislative hurdles, the time required to deliver policy change, institutional capacity and business resistance. These insights contribute to the growing literature on incremental barrier weakening that can be harnessed to deliver step changes in climate policy stringency. Key policy insights A stepwise approach to implementation can help direct attention to how a policy could be improved, supporting its later upscaling. Incremental refinement of policies post-implementation can support later upscaling by enabling governments to move quickly when a political window of opportunity emerges. Climate policy stringency can be enhanced through different legislative pathways that face different levels of complexity and friction. Embedding policies in existing frameworks and a phased implementation approach can help to overcome business-resistance and institutional-capacity barriers.

The Impact of Green Finance and Financial Globalization on Environmental Sustainability: Empirical Evidence from Türkiye

Green finance—including bilateral and multilateral development aid and concessional loans—has emerged as a critical tool in supporting the transition to a low-carbon economy, particularly in emerging economies. Türkiye, since the early 2000s, has increasingly relied on climate-related official development flows in alignment with its sustainability and emissions reduction targets. This study examines the impact of green finance and financial globalization on environmental sustainability in Türkiye over the period 2001–2021. It specifically tests the load capacity curve (LCC) hypothesis, which posits a non-linear (U-shaped) relationship between financial drivers and ecological outcomes. The study employs the load capacity factor (LCF) as an environmental pressure indicator and uses ARDL, FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR estimation methods to ensure robustness. The results indicate that green finance has a long-term positive effect on Türkiye’s environmental sustainability, whereas financial globalization shows mixed effects. The findings confirm the presence of a U-shaped relationship between green finance and environmental pressure, supporting the LCC hypothesis. These results contribute to the limited empirical literature on green finance in emerging economies and suggest that policy frameworks should emphasize the sequencing and institutional alignment of green financial flows. Policymakers in Türkiye and similar economies may benefit from integrating green finance strategies with targeted regulatory reforms to maximize ecological benefits.

Session 20. Oral Presentation for: Shaping the future of MMV in CO2 storage: a look at established and emerging technologies

Presented on 28 May 2025: Session 20 Geological carbon storage (GCS) is an important component of emissions abatement and decarbonisation efforts, and measurement, monitoring and verification (MMV) plays a vital role in ensuring its effectiveness. As the business case for GCS advances, so too does the need for sophisticated MMV systems to accurately track and verify CO2 storage. Monitoring CO2 storage needs a ‘risk-based’ approach, whereby technologies are chosen for deployment based on the specific risks they address at each site. Several MMV technologies are emerging and intended to enhance the way CO2 storage is monitored and managed. Technologies and techniques such as Marine Vibroseis, Passive Seismic monitoring, Gravimetry and Fibre-Optics can provide valuable insights into CO2 behaviour within storage sites, whilst being less invasive on the environment and surrounding areas. Substantial progress has been made over decades of dedicated research and testing by CO2CRC and its collaborating partners at the Otway International Test Centre (OITC) – and there is still further work to be done. In certain settings, the adoption of these emerging technologies can reduce monitoring costs without adversely impacting on health, safety and the environment. This transformation is pivotal for scaling up GCS efforts globally, making it a more viable and attractive option for government and industry sectors focussed on reducing their carbon footprint to align with national emissions reduction targets. To access the Oral Presentation click the link on the right. To read the full paper click here

Spatial-temporal Evolution and Prediction of Carbon Reserves in Wanjiang River Basin with the InVEST-PLUS Model

Exploring the impact of space-time-evolution of land use on ecosystem carbon reserves has positive feedback significance for the global emission reduction and foreign exchange increase target. Based on three periods of land use data from 2000 to 2020， combined with the InVEST model， the spatiotemporal changes of carbon storage in Wanjiang River Basin were analyzed. The PLUS model was used to predict the four scenarios of natural development， urban protection， farmland protection， and ecological protection in Wanjiang River Basin in 2040， and the carbon storage of the ecosystem in different scenarios was estimated. The results show that： ① Land use change directly affected the carbon storage of the study area. Between 2000 and 2020， the area of cultivated land， grassland， and unused land decreased by 1 096.73 km2， 5.92 km2， and 4.55 km2， respectively， while the area of forest land， water bodies， and construction land increased by 48.9 km2， 69.68 km2， and 988.6 km2， respectively. The carbon storage decreased by 2.84×106 t， and the distribution of carbon storage was consistent with the spatial distribution of land use. Areas with higher carbon storage had less construction land and more concentrated and distributed ecological land. ②The multi-scenario simulation for 2040 showed that the overall land use pattern was consistent， with significant local changes. In the scenarios of natural development， urban development， and ecological protection， carbon storage decreased by 2.485×106 t， 2.513×106 t， and 0.749×106 t， respectively. Among them， in the scenario of farmland protection， carbon storage decreased by at least 0.029×106 t. ③ The spatial differentiation of carbon storage was mainly influenced by climate factors. The geographic detector indicated that the annual average precipitation （0.139） had the highest explanatory power and was the main driving factor for the spatial differentiation of carbon storage in the Wanjiang River Basin. The synergistic impact type （0.382） between vegetation net primary productivity and annual average precipitation was the strongest. The reduction of carbon reserves can be controlled by adopting the policy of farmland protection and ecological protection. In future planning， ecological land should be protected， and the expansion of construction land should be controlled to improve the level of carbon reserves.

The logic of net zero investment portfolios: positioning long-term investors for financial outperformance

ABSTRACT The transition to a net zero carbon economy is imperative for mitigating the impacts of climate change. Although net-zero investing is still emerging, initiatives such as the Net-Zero Asset Owner Alliance (NZAOA) have set ambitious interim emission-reduction targets. This paper theoretically examines the strategies adopted by the world's largest long-term investors to achieve net zero emissions in their portfolios by 2050 or earlier. By systematically reviewing the net zero plans of 33 global asset owners, this paper identifies four primary approaches: divestment from high-emitting assets, re-weighting investments based on carbon exposure, reducing emissions in existing investments through stewardship and retrofits, and investing in net zero or net-negative emissions solutions. The effectiveness, advantages, and limitations of each investment strategy are analyzed, along with their impact on portfolio emissions, the real economy, and portfolio performance. The paper concludes with strategic recommendations to help asset owners design and implement credible net-zero pathways.

Estimation of Potentially Toxic Substances and Health Risks in VOCs in Urban Areas of Seoul

This study assessed the health impacts and influencing factors of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban environments using both deterministic and probabilistic (Monte Carlo simulation) risk assessments. VOC concentrations were monitored hourly at five Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations (PAMS) across Seoul from August 2020 to July 2023. Among 56 measured VOCs, 18 compounds with established toxicological values (e.g., reference concentration, inhalation unit risk) were selected for detailed analysis. Results indicated non-carcinogenic hazard quotients (HQs) and excess carcinogenic risks (ECRs) were below the thresholds (HQ < 1, ECR < 1.0E-05) at all monitoring sites, although the highest TECR reached 1.0E-06 at JN. Sensitivity analysis revealed that body weight (BW) contributed most significantly (approximately 31–38%) to the hazard index (HI), while among non-carcinogenic VOCs, n-nonane had the highest contribution (up to 23% at JN). For Total Excess Cancer Risk (TECR), benzene was the dominant contributor at GJ, GR, and BHS (up to 41% at GR), whereas exposure duration was the most influential factor at GS and JN. The principal component analysis (PCA) indicated vehicle exhaust and fuel evaporation as major emission sources, although their contributions varied spatially. These findings underscore the importance of developing targeted emission reduction strategies that incorporate local emission characteristics and population vulnerabilities rather than solely focusing on reducing ambient VOCs.

Comparative Analysis of CO2 Emissions and Transport Efficiency in 174k CBM LNG Carriers with X-DF and ME-GI Propulsion

This study investigates the environmental and operational performance of X-DF and ME-GI propulsion systems in large LNG carriers, focusing on key emission and transport efficiency metrics—CO2, the EEOI, and the CII—and their relationship with operational factors such as shaft power, vessel speed, propeller slip, and specific fuel oil consumption. Statistical methods including correlation analysis, regression modeling, outlier detection, and clustering are employed to evaluate engine behavior across the ship’s fuel gas steaming envelope and to identify critical efficiency trends. The results show that ME-GI engines deliver lower CO2 emissions and consistent efficiency under steady-load conditions, due to their higher thermal efficiency and precise control characteristics. In contrast, X-DF engines demonstrate greater adaptability, leveraging LNG combustion to achieve cleaner emissions and optimal performance in specific operational clusters. Clustering analysis highlights distinct patterns: ME-GI engines excel with optimized shaft power and RPM, while X-DF engines achieve peak efficiency through adaptive load and fuel management. These findings provide actionable insights for integrating performance indicators into SEEMP strategies, enabling targeted emission reductions and fuel optimization across diverse operating scenarios—thus supporting more sustainable maritime transport.

Does economic agglomeration reduce CO2 emissions? The role of green innovation and financial development in Chinese cities

Abstract Economic agglomeration (EA), a core feature of urbanization in developing countries, presents both opportunities and challenges for achieving carbon reduction targets. We employ the fixed-effects panel models for 270 prefecture-level cities in China, between 2006 and 2019, to examine how EA affects CO2 emissions in developing contexts. We find the following results: (1) EA can decrease the overall emissions of Chinese prefecture-level cities and facilitate them to meet their carbon emission reduction targets. (2) Green technology innovation and financial development mediate the emission reduction effects of EA. (3) Heterogeneity analysis shows that EA significantly reduces emissions in eastern and central cities but not in western regions. The impact is more pronounced in cities of large and high economic development, and substantially greater in low-carbon pilot cities compared to non-pilot cities. Our findings provide empirical evidence for policymakers in developing countries to concert EA and low-carbon emissions through green innovation and financial development.

Characterization of pollutant discharges from ships within 100 nautical miles of China's coastline and certain inland river ports, 2022.

Characterization of pollutant discharges from ships within 100 nautical miles of China's coastline and certain inland river ports, 2022.

A hybrid MCDM approach for optimizing fuel consumption and mitigating air pollution in shipping: A case study using DEMATEL and ANP

Fuel consumption represents a pivotal factor in determining operational costs within maritime transportation, with direct implications for energy efficiency, environmental sustainability, and air pollution. This study aims to identify and evaluate the key determinants influencing fuel consumption, with the objective of optimizing these factors to enhance overall energy efficiency. A Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methodology was employed to systematically rank and prioritize the most significant criteria impacting fuel efficiency. The findings of the study indicate that compliance with sea conditions, optimal ship speed and the expertise of shipmasters (C3.2) are the most influential factors, followed by voyage planning that accounts for sea and weather conditions (C3.7). These results emphasize the critical role of operational strategies and the decision-making capabilities of personnel in minimizing fuel consumption. Moreover, the study identifies the significant contribution of maintenance practices, adherence to regulatory frameworks and environmental factors in shaping fuel efficiency outcomes. Quantitative analyses confirm that the implementation of energy-efficient practices can result in substantial cost savings and reductions in emissions. However, the achievement of stringent emission reduction targets may impose financial burdens on shipping companies, necessitating significant investments in fuel-efficient technologies and operational optimizations. Future research should focus on longitudinal voyage analyses, incorporating larger sample sizes and the development of mathematical models that align with the CO2 reduction targets set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for the years 2015, 2020, 2025, and 2030. This research provides valuable insights for maritime industry stakeholders and contributes to ongoing policy discussions, advocating for the establishment of standardized fuel consumption management practices that promote a more sustainable and economically efficient future for the shipping industry.

An EG-Tree Model Incorporating Spatial Heterogeneity for Analyzing Multifactorial Coupling Effects on Carbon Emissions Across Industries and Regions in China

With the proposal of the dual carbon goals, it is of great significance to identify the causes of carbon emissions and reduce carbon emissions directly. There is a lack of analysis on the causes of carbon emissions considering the coupling effect of multiple factors and regional heterogeneity. The causes of carbon emissions are examined from multiple perspectives utilizing the panel data spanning from 1997 to 2022, encompassing 30 provinces in China. To further analyze the causes of carbon emissions, an enhanced feature and regularized gradient boosting tree (EG-Tree) model is constructed, and a scoring method for the tree structure is proposed. The coupling effect of multiple factors are analyzed such as coal, coke, crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gas, etc., on the carbon emission intensity of various industries and their regional heterogeneity. The results show that: (1) The EG-Tree model constructed in this study could accurately analyze the causes of carbon emissions under the coupling of multiple factors based on the cumulative iterative feature branching contribution values (impact factors), with an average model fitting precision of 0.30. This means the carbon emission intensity values were predicted by various industries in different regions based on different energy consumption levels and industry-specific carbon emissions, compared with the carbon emission intensity values calculated using the carbon emission measurement dataset. (2) The consumption of coal and coke has a significant impact on the average carbon emission factors of various industries, with values of 7139.95 and 7217.05, respectively. The consumption of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas has a smaller impact on the average carbon emission intensity of various industries under the EG-Tree model with corresponding carbon emission intensity impact factors of 5057.90 and 2789.57, respectively. (3) The Northeast region is a low-carbon area, while the East region is a high-carbon area, with total carbon emissions of 2,238,646.60 million tons and 5,566,314.00 million tons of CO2, respectively. The Northeast region has the lowest pollution intensity for heating and cooling, with carbon emissions of 155,661.73 million tons of CO2; the industrial carbon emissions in the East region are relatively high at 1,623,835.62 million tons of CO2. The research findings of this study are beneficial for relevant departments to focus on the main impact factors of carbon emissions in different regions and industries, and to develop targeted emission reduction policies.

Assessing Global Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Key Drivers and Mitigation Strategies

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges in recent decades. Agricultural activities significantly influence climate dynamics, necessitating thorough investigation of their emission patterns. Using the FAO datasets, the objectives of this study were to assess agricultural GHG emissions, identify influencing factors, and explore potential mitigation strategies. The results show that emissions related to crop production are strongly correlated with the yields of predominant crops. Maize production had the largest impact on crop emissions (0.023), followed by potato (0.021) and rice (0.007). Notably, these three crops accounted for substantial portions of total crop-related emissions, with maize contributing 11.70%, potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) 10.21%, and rice 9.25%. In the livestock sector, cattle herds generated 10.75% of emissions, with pigs and sheep contributing 9.82% and 10.03%, respectively. Multivariate analysis revealed the cattle/buffalo population as the dominant emission driver (0.32), followed by sheep/goat (0.21) and swine (0.10) populations. Simultaneously, emissions from livestock operations were closely associated with the populations of key livestock species. Thus, from a climate mitigation perspective, prioritizing yield-optimized agronomic approaches for maize and potato cultivation, along with strategic population management of cattle and sheep, represents a critical pathway toward achieving emission reduction targets in global agricultural systems.

Nitrogen deposition effects in Austrian forests

Excess Nitrogen (N) deposition from industrial, domestic and agricultural sources have led to increased nitrate leaching, the loss of biological diversity, and has affected C sequestration in forest ecosystems. Global mean N deposition is still increasing while in Europe, N deposition peaked during the mid 1980s and was slowly going down until today as a result of emission reductions (EU28) of NOx by 50% and NH3 by 30% between the years 1990 and 2015. However, the amount of N deposition did not decrease in all areas in Europe and the currently legislated emission reduction targets are too low to save ecosystems and biodiversity from further effects. In order to assess the ecosystem effects of chronically high N deposition in the forests of the Austria, a unique four-decade data set of 16 single monitoring and research sites has been compiled. These measurements include air concentration, deposition, soil water chemistry, and foliage chemistry together with ancillary data on climate, soils, tree species, forest management and structure. The results underpin the tight relationship between N deposition, nitrate leaching, and nutrient deficiency in trees. Hence, the deposition pattern found in Austria (high in the north and southeast and low in the center) correlate with the N impacts. Furthermore, tree species and climate mediate the magnitude in the effects. In Austria, 56% of the nitrogen released into the environment comes from agriculture. In particular, emissions of ammonia, which are produced during livestock farming, the storage of slurry and manure and fertilisation, have been reduced comparatively little. As a result, forests, meadows, heaths and moors, which account for around 60% of the country's surface area, still receive nitrogen above the critical load. Protected areas for rare species and habitats are also affected. The Ammonia Reduction Ordinance has been in force since January 2023. Targeted measures such as the mandatory covering of manure storage facilities, the mandatory incorporation of fertilisers in arable farming and requirements for the use of emission-intensive urea fertilisers are intended to reduce nitrogen emissions.

Influencing Factors of EV Ride-Hailing Adoption in Jakarta: A Case Study of GoRide Electric

The electrification of urban transport is critical to achieving global emissions reduction targets, particularly in emerging economies where motorcycle-dominated traffic significantly contributes to air pollution. Road transport accounts for nearly 46% of the city’s total emissions in Jakarta, with motorcycles representing over 80% of private vehicles. As Indonesia’s leading ride-hailing platform, Gojek launched GoRide Electric as part of its GoTo Net Zero Emission 2030 commitment. However, consumer adoption of this electric alternative remains limited, underscoring a gap between supply-side readiness and demand-side behavior. This study aims to identify and evaluate key consumer-level factors that influence the adoption of GoRide Electric in Jakarta. Using a mixed-method design, a literature synthesis of five peer-reviewed EV ride-hailing adoption studies was conducted to extract 15 sub-variables, which were consolidated into four theoretical constructs: Affordability, Reliability, Environmental Benefit, and Social Influence. These constructs were operationalized into a 15-item questionnaire and validated through a 4-point Likert-scale survey of 141 active Gojek users. The data underwent descriptive quantitative analysis using SPSS to rank variable importance. Results indicate that Environmental Benefit is the most influential factor (M = 3.39), followed by Reliability as the second most influential factor (M = 3.35). Affordability ranked third (M = 3.15), while Social Influence scored the lowest (M = 2.78), indicating weak peer-driven motivation. This study contributes to the literature on sustainable mobility by contextualizing EV adoption behavior in a Southeast Asian megacity. It provides actionable insights for policymakers and platform operators to design consumer-centric interventions for EV ride-hailing uptake.

The implications of the European Green Deal stemming from the REPowerEU plan for Brazil–European Union relations in the sustainable fuels sector (2019–2024)

This article examines the implications of the European Green Deal and the REPowerEU program on Brazil-European Union bilateral relations in the sustainable fuels sector from 2019 to 2024. The research is based on the global relevance of the environmental agenda, Brazil’s strategic role as a bioenergy supplier, and the EU’s position as a leader in the pursuit of energy transition and greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. The adopted methodology combines a literature review and documentary analysis, thus enabling the mapping of European and Brazilian policies, as well as an assessment of their impacts on Brazilian exports. Among the findings, the strengthening of Brazil-EU relations stands out, particularly in the development of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and green hydrogen, driven by regulations and incentives on both sides. However, first-generation biofuels face regulatory challenges, which limit their access to the European market. This study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of energy transition dynamics and their effects on international relations.

Opportunity cost and employment effect of targeted emission reduction: an inter-industry comparison across countries

Opportunity cost and employment effect of targeted emission reduction: an inter-industry comparison across countries

Is climate neutral possible for the U.S. beef and dairy sectors?

The objective of this review and modeling effort is to define climate neutrality as it relates to beef and dairy production, and to introduce accounting methods that will help guide the livestock industry’s ability to achieve climate targets, to summarize emission mitigation strategies, and present potential scenarios to achieve climate neutral emissions for the beef and dairy industries. The global target to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2050 has resulted in many companies, including agribusiness companies, setting voluntary emission reduction targets. The main concept behind these goals is that GHG emissions do not exceed the GHG removed from the atmosphere by GHG sinks. Where multiple greenhouse gases are involved, the quantification of climate neutral emissions depends on the climate metric and time horizon chosen to place these gases on an equivalent basis (e.g., global warming potential, and global warming potential-star). As the ruminant supply chain emits both short-lived (methane; CH4) and long-lived (carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide) GHGs, how companies choose to account for these gases will impact their progress toward these goals. Further, mitigation strategies for beef and dairy systems have predominantly focused on enteric CH4 emissions and soil C sequestration. However, several hurdles still exist to reduce emissions by the magnitude required to realistically achieve a net zero supply chain. Determining the ability of a system to be climate neutral is a complicated and complex process and will not be achieved by a “silver bullet” approach. The scientific community will need to develop multiple mitigation strategies that are regionally and contextually adaptable.

Shaping the future of MMV in CO2 storage: a look at established and emerging technologies

Geological carbon storage (GCS) is an important component of emissions abatement and decarbonisation efforts, and measurement, monitoring and verification (MMV) plays a vital role in ensuring its effectiveness. As the business case for GCS advances, so too does the need for sophisticated MMV systems to accurately track and verify CO2 storage. Monitoring CO2 storage needs a ‘risk-based’ approach, whereby technologies are chosen for deployment based on the specific risks they address at each site. Several MMV technologies are emerging and intended to enhance the way CO2 storage is monitored and managed. Technologies and techniques such as Marine Vibroseis, Passive Seismic monitoring, Gravimetry and Fibre-Optics can provide valuable insights into CO2 behaviour within storage sites, whilst being less invasive on the environment and surrounding areas. Substantial progress has been made over decades of dedicated research and testing by CO2CRC and its collaborating partners at the Otway International Test Centre (OITC) – and there is still further work to be done. In certain settings, the adoption of these emerging technologies can reduce monitoring costs without adversely impacting on health, safety and the environment. This transformation is pivotal for scaling up GCS efforts globally, making it a more viable and attractive option for government and industry sectors focussed on reducing their carbon footprint to align with national emissions reduction targets.