Emergence Of Flies Research Articles

Host Status of Persian Lime (Citrus latifolia Tan.) to Oriental Fruit Fly and Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Hawai'i.

We investigated the host status of harvest-ready green Persian lime, Citrus x latifolia Tan. (Rutaceae), to Oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis [Hendel]) and Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata [Wiedemann]) (Diptera: Tephritidae) using laboratory and field studies. In forced-infestation small cage exposures (using 25 × 25 × 25 cm screened cages with 50 gravid females) and large olfactometer cage tests (using 2.9 × 2.9 × 2.5 m walk-in screened cages with 100 gravid females), punctured limes were infested by Oriental fruit fly and Mediterranean fruit fly at low rates compared to papaya controls, whereas undamaged intact fruit was not infested. Field collection and packing of 45,958 commercial export-grade fruit and subsequent incubation to look for natural infestation resulted in no emergence of fruit flies. Forced infestation studies in the field using sleeve cages to enclose fruit with a high density of fruit flies (50 gravid females) on the tree also showed no infestation. Commercial export-grade Persian lime fruit should be considered a conditional nonhost for Oriental fruit fly and Mediterranean fruit fly.

Distinct roles of COMPASS subunits to Drosophila heart development.

The multiprotein complexes known as the complex of proteins associated with Set1 (COMPASS) play a crucial role in the methylation of histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4). In Drosophila, the COMPASS series complexes comprise core subunits Set1, Trx, and Trr, which share several common subunits such as ash2, Dpy30-L1, Rbbp5, and wds, alongside their unique subunits: Wdr82 for Set1/COMPASS, Mnn1 for Trx/COMPASS-like, and Ptip for Trr/COMPASS-like. Our research has shown that flies deficient in any of these common or unique subunits exhibited high lethality at eclosion (the emergence of adult flies from their pupal cases) and significantly shortened lifespans of the few adults that do emerge. Silencing these common or unique subunits led to severe heart morphological and functional defects. Moreover, specifically silencing the unique subunits of the COMPASS series complexes, Wdr82, Mnn1, and Ptip, in the heart results in decreased levels of H3K4 monomethylation and dimethylation, consistent with effects observed from silencing the core subunits Set1, Trx, and Trr. These findings underscore the critical roles of each subunit of the COMPASS series complexes in regulating histone methylation during heart development and provide valuable insights into their potential involvement in congenital heart diseases, thereby informing ongoing research in heart disease.

Variation in Thermal Sensitivity of Diapause Development among Individuals and over Time Predicts Life History Timing in a Univoltine Insect.

AbstractPhysiological time is important for understanding the development and seasonal timing of ectothermic animals but has largely been applied to developmental processes that occur during spring and summer, such as morphogenesis. There is a substantial knowledge gap in the relationship between temperature and development during winter, a season that is increasingly impacted by climate change. Most temperate insects overwinter in diapause, a developmental process with little obvious morphological change. We used principles from the physiological time literature to measure and model the thermal sensitivity of diapause development rate in the apple maggot fly Rhagoletis pomonella, a univoltine fly whose diapause duration varies substantially within and among populations. We show that diapause duration can be predicted by modeling a relationship between temperature and development rate that is shifted toward lower temperatures compared with typical models of morphogenic, nondiapause development. However, incorporating interindividual variation and ontogenetic variation in the temperature-to-development rate relationship was critical for accurately predicting fly emergence, as diapause development proceeded more quickly at high temperatures later in diapause. We conclude that the conceptual framework may be flexibly applied to other insects and discuss possible mechanisms of diapause timers and implications for phenology with warming winters.

Maggots cannot live on meat meal alone: production parameters for mass rearing of the ovoviviparous blowfly, Calliphora dubia (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

This study determined a cost-effective larval diet for rearing Calliphora dubia Macquart for use as a potential managed pollinator in Australia. This fly has potential as a pollination species to support honey bees (Apis mellifera). Larvae of C. dubia were reared mostly in meat meals with varying amounts of either whole egg powder, whole eggs (+ shell), bran flakes, skimmed milk powder, brewer's yeast, or poultry oil. This was done from an economic and production perspective to support commercial rearing. Several laboratory-based studies determined the growth and output from various ingredient combinations. Larvae fed 90% meat meal and 10% whole egg powder developed rapidly through to pupation with a high pupation rate, adult size, and percent adult emergence. Given the high cost and difficulty in sourcing whole egg powder, media comprising mostly meat meals with the addition of bran flakes and whole eggs also supported rapid larval development, pupation rate, and adult emergence. The ideal amount of media/larvae was 0.5 g/larvae to support high pupation rates and adult emergence. Adult eclosion occurred over 4-5 days, even when larvae were laid and fed within 1 h on ample media. Commercial mass rearing would then require daily cohorts of larvae to ensure peak adult fly emergence over 1-2 days for release into a crop. Mass-rearing C. dubia should use meat meal as the base ingredient with bran flakes and whole eggs added and fed at 0.5 g of media/larvae. Based on the current media ingredient costs, rearing 1-m adult C. dubia would cost just over $500 (US$342).

Timed receptor tyrosine kinase signaling couples the central and a peripheral circadian clock in Drosophila

Circadian clocks impose daily periodicities to behavior, physiology, and metabolism. This control is mediated by a central clock and by peripheral clocks, which are synchronized to provide the organism with a unified time through mechanisms that are not fully understood. Here, we characterized in Drosophila the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in coupling the central clock and the peripheral clock located in the prothoracic gland (PG), which together control the circadian rhythm of emergence of adult flies. The time signal from central clock neurons is transmitted via small neuropeptide F (sNPF) to neurons that produce the neuropeptide Prothoracicotropic Hormone (PTTH), which is then translated into daily oscillations of Ca2+ concentration and PTTH levels. PTTH signaling is required at the end of metamorphosis and transmits time information to the PG through changes in the expression of the PTTH receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), TORSO, and of ERK phosphorylation, a key component of PTTH transduction. In addition to PTTH, we demonstrate that signaling mediated by other RTKs contributes to the rhythmicity of emergence. Interestingly, the ligand to one of these receptors (Pvf2) plays an autocrine role in the PG, which may explain why both central brain and PG clocks are required for the circadian gating of emergence. Our findings show that the coupling between the central and the PG clock is unexpectedly complex and involves several RTKs that act in concert and could serve as a paradigm to understand how circadian clocks are coordinated.

Virulence and biochemical activities of Heterorhabditis indica (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae) against Bactrocera zonata and Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

This study examines the impact of Heterorhabditis indica entomopathogenic nematodes on mature larvae of the peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata (Saunders), and the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), both of which are highly detrimental species in the Tephritidae family. The investigation is conducted in a laboratory setting using two types of soil: sandy loam and sand. The research focuses on the virulence and biochemical effects of the nematodes. The results indicate that H. indica is more effective in sandy loam soil than sandy soil. This is supported by the LC50 values (the lethal concentration that kills 50% of the tested organisms) of 566.656 Infective Juveniles/ml for B. zonata and 250.53 Infective Juveniles/ml for C. capitata in sandy loam soil, whereas the corresponding values in sandy soil were 1149.051 and 701.839 Infective Juveniles/ml, respectively. Consequently, C. capitata larvae are more susceptible to entomopathogenic nematodes than B. zonata larvae. The infection by the nematodes also leads to changes in specific enzymatic activities of the larvae. This includes significant reductions in amylase, trehalase, and acetylcholine esterase, alongside an increase in invertase activity. Moreover, varying decreases are observed in chitinase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase activities. In conclusion, the nematodes effectively reduce the emergence of adult flies by targeting the final stages of insect development. Furthermore, they offer an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides.

Seedcorn maggot response to planting date, cover crops, and tillage in organic cropping systems.

Seedcorn maggot, Delia platura (Meigen) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae), is an economically important early-season pest of corn and soybean in the United States. Adult seedcorn maggot is attracted to decomposing plant residues for oviposition, creating potential management issues where growers typically use tillage to incorporate fertility amendments and to create a seedbed. The use of growing degree-day models to time planting dates is an important tool for effectively managing this pest, but their use has not been examined in organic crop production. Here, we report the results of experiments to determine the effects of cover crops, tillage, and relative planting date on seedcorn maggot in corn and soybean in 2 experiments: The first during the transition to organic from conventional management and the second during the 3 yr following organic certification in central Pennsylvania, United States. Overall, delaying the planting date by 1-2 wk reduced fly emergence in corn, but not in soybean in both experiments. Seedcorn maggot emergence was also consistently greater in corn than in soybean, with 6 times more flies in corn than in soy. About 15 times more seedcorn maggot flies emerged from corn in treatments in which cover crops were managed with tillage compared to treatments in which cover crops were terminated with a roller-crimper followed by no-till planting of corn. Fly emergence was negatively related to the proportion of legumes in the cover crop mixture preceding corn. These results can help inform soil, cover crop, and crop decisions for organic growers in the Mid-Atlantic United States.

Detection and characterization of incidental vibrations from Drosophila suzukii in infested fruits

The spotted-wing drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), is an invasive species native to East Asia and now widespread worldwide. Major economic damage is caused by the larvae developing within ripening soft-skin fruit. Currently, larval detection in fruit is limited to destructive methods and post-harvest control strategies heavily rely on the use of chemicals or cold to inhibit egg eclosion and larval growth. Feeding larvae are likely to induce substrate-borne vibrations in the berry that could be exploited as cues by predators or to develop a non-invasive pest detection method, an approach previously applied on leaves and wooden structures, but never on fresh fruit. We used a laser vibrometer to detect and characterize the incidental vibrations produced by D. suzukii larvae within fresh blueberries at five different pest age (48, 96, 168, 216 and 264 h). An innovative statistical analysis was performed to assess if infestation level (number of pupae) and pest age (hours after exposure) affect the spectrum and the amplitude of vibrations. The recordings of infested berries were characterized by the presence of a series of broad-band pulses (frequency range 0.1–2 kHz) without a regular temporal pattern, in an amplitude range between 12.1 and 946 µm/s. Furthermore, the analysis revealed the possibility to distinguish between different pest ages and infestation levels. By a spectral analysis of the recordings, the pest ages can be distinguished among each other, but for the age groups at 168 and 216 h after infestation. The vibration amplitude trend gradually increased up to 168–216 h after infestation, and then decreased until fly emergence. Low-infested blueberries showed a faster D. suzukii development time compared to high-infested blueberries. This was reflected into vibrational recordings, as low-infested blueberries exhibited peak amplitude at earlier stage compared to high-infested ones. Results suggest that D. suzukii larvae induce detectable vibrations by feeding within berries that are dependent on infestation level and pest age. We discuss the possible ecological role of such vibrations as cues for unintended receivers, such as predators and parasitoids, and their potential for innovative infestation detection methods.

Distinct Roles for COMPASS Core Subunits Set1, Trx, and Trr in the Epigenetic Regulation of Drosophila Heart Development.

Highly evolutionarily conserved multiprotein complexes termed Complex of Proteins Associated with Set1 (COMPASS) are required for histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methylation. Drosophila Set1, Trx, and Trr form the core subunits of these complexes. We show that flies deficient in any of these three subunits demonstrated high lethality at eclosion (emergence of adult flies from their pupal cases) and significantly shortened lifespans for the adults that did emerge. Silencing Set1, trx, or trr in the heart led to a reduction in H3K4 monomethylation (H3K4me1) and dimethylation (H3K4me2), reflecting their distinct roles in H3K4 methylation. Furthermore, we studied the gene expression patterns regulated by Set1, Trx, and Trr. Each of the COMPASS core subunits controls the methylation of different sets of genes, with many metabolic pathways active early in development and throughout, while muscle and heart differentiation processes were methylated during later stages of development. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the roles of COMPASS series complex core subunits Set1, Trx, and Trr in regulating histone methylation during heart development and, given their implication in congenital heart diseases, inform research on heart disease.

Proanthocyanidins-Rich Fraction of Tamarindus Indica Maintained Redox Status of Environmental Toxicant-Induced Genotoxicity in Drosophila Melanogaster

Proanthocyanidin, a bioactive polyphenolic component of tamarin (Tamarindus indica L.), offers neuroprotective benefits with insufficient scientific evidence. This study evaluated the behavioral and molecular effect of proanthocyanidin-rich fraction on the gene expression level of antioxidant and aging enzymes in Drosophila melanogaster. The fruit flies were fed with the fraction at 1.5 and 2.5 mg/g diet for seven days, followed by exposure to 0.1 µg/g diet lead oxide for equivalent days. Negative geotaxis and survival assays were conducted on the flies. The expression level of phase II antioxidant enzymes and acetylcholinesterase were evaluated using rt-PCR to assess proanthocyanidin’s protection level and mechanism in Pb-induced neurotoxic D. melanogaster. The results show that the proanthocyanidins-rich fraction enhanced locomotor activity and the rate of emergence of flies even in the presence of eco-toxicant. The fraction also mitigated the harmful effect of Pb via the activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase, as evidenced by the increase in the expression levels of the catalase and SOD genes in the noxious environment. Thus, the study provides insights into understanding the neuroprotection mechanism of proanthocyanidins-rich fraction against lead-induced neurotoxicity in D. melanogaster, which could be translated to humans when explored further.

Manure trial evaluation of Bacillus velezensis PHP1601 as a viable biocontrol candidate against nuisance fly species at an operational piggery

Fly infestations threaten farming and livestock operations, contributing to animal irritation and the spread of serious diseases. In this study, the application of Bacillus velezensis PHP1601 (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) treatments (105 and 1010 endospore g−1) to pig manure slurries was evaluated as a means of controlling fly reproductive cycles. Two cycles of fly emergence were evaluated over a 33 days period for each replicated trial. For both treatments, the first emergence event resulted in a significant reduction in the percentage of flies emerging compared to an un-treated control. Extended monitoring of the biocontrol containers revealed that fly emergence was completely eliminated by the time that a second round of fly emergence was observed for the control. A B. velezensis-specific real-time PCR method was developed and used to assess the population dynamics of the applied biocontrol agent over the course of the experiment. Strain PHP1601 remained viable in the manure and cell numbers increased by several orders of magnitude. REP-PCR fingerprinting was used to confirm the clonality of endospores recovered from the manure. Fly species recovered from the trials were identified by cytochrome oxidase gene barcode sequencing. Several species of veterinary and medically significant flies were identified. They were all deemed to be susceptible to treatments with PHP1601 and constituted part of the strain's host range. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of B. velezensis PHP1601 as a promising biocontrol agent for controlling fly infestations under conditions similar to its intended use.

Acute and Reproductive Toxicity of Freeze-dried and Steam-dried Extracts of Tradomal® in Drosophila melanogaster

Background and Purpose: Tradomal® is an herbal preparation containing Senna siamea that is marketed for the treatment of malaria in Northern Nigeria. The study evaluated the acute and reproductive toxicity of freeze-dried and steam-dried extracts of Tradomal® in Drosophila melanogaster.
 Methods: The acute toxic effect of the plant was evaluated by determining its LC50. The reproductive toxicity of the extracts was evaluated via its effect on the eclosion of adult melanogaster flies.
 Results: Both steam-dried and freeze-dried extracts of Tradomal® showed LC50 of 2767.83 mg/10 g and 4475.74 mg/10 g of meal respectively. Although the steam-dried extract did not affect fly eclosion, the freeze-dried extract significantly (P<0.05) inhibited the emergence of adult flies from the pupae.
 Conclusion: The extracts are relatively safe, but the method of drying can influence their effects on reproduction in fruit flies.

Overwinter users of nest cavities affect breeding birds via nest‐dwelling ectoparasites

AbstractCavities used for avian reproduction in spring often host other organisms for roosting during winter, which should affect their microclimatic conditions and, then, the patterns of emergence of nest‐dwelling ectoparasites of birds and successful parasitism. To prove these cascade effects, we experimentally blocked the entrance of half of nest boxes previously used for reproduction by hoopoes (Upupa epops), recorded temperature and humidity during the fall–winter period, and evaluated abundance, emergence of ectoparasitic flies (Carnus hemapterus), and intensity of parasitism in hoopoe nestlings growing in open and blocked nest boxes the next spring. As expected, experimental treatment as well as the occupancy of open nest boxes by rodents (i.e., mainly dormice [Eliomys quercinus]) affected temperature and humidity, but did not predict the onset or duration of Carnus emergence. Moreover, flies were more abundant in open nest boxes and, among them, those occupied by dormice showed the lowest abundance. Finally, hoopoe nestlings developing in nest boxes blocked during winter experienced lower intensity of ectoparasitism than those in open nest boxes. These hitherto undescribed cryptic effects of overwinter occupants of nest cavities on subsequent emergence and viability of nest‐dwelling ectoparasites would profoundly impact on the interaction with their avian hosts.

PERSEPSI MASYARAKAT TERHADAP DAMPAK PETERNAKAN AYAM RAS PETELUR DI DESA SUMBERASRI KECAMATAN NGLEGOK KABUPATEN BLITAR

This study aims to determine the public's perception of the laying hens farming business in Sumberasri Village, Nglegok District, Blitar Regency. The material used in this research is people who live close to the laying hens farm environment. The research method used is a survey method, namely by taking a direct approach to the community around the location of the laying hens farm in Sumberasri Village, Kec. Look at Kab. Blitar. Based on the results of research that has been carried out in general, it can be concluded that the results of public perception of laying hens in Sumberasri Village, Nglegok District, Blitar Regency can be viewed from the aspect of smell, and the emergence of flies is actually not good (disturbed) but the community understands it. For water, soil and cage contamination, the community does not feel disturbed if it is handled properly. While the results of the study for the overall category got a score of 782, which means that the community does not feel disturbed by the existence of laying hens in Sumberasri Village, Nglegok District, Blitar Regency.

Field evaluation of glutathione and glutamic acid as host marking pheromones for control of Tephritid fruit flies in a mango orchard in Kenya.

Tephritid fruit flies are a major constraint to the global production of horticultural crops. In Africa, an array of native and alien invasive fruit fly species represents a key challenge to the horticultural industry. In an effort to develop a safer management tool for these pests, we previously identified glutathione (GSH) and glutamic acid (GA), as the host marking pheromones (HMPs) of Ceratitis cosyra and Ceratitis rosa, respectively. Here, we report on the effectiveness of these compounds (GSH and GA) in reducing natural fruit fly population infestations in mango orchards. Mango trees at two different agroecological zones in Kenya were sprayed with HMPs, and the fruits sampled periodically and assessed for fruit fly emergence. Fruit fly emergence data were compared to two controls, the positive control using spot spraying of food bait (SS), and the negative control using water (W). The two HMPs and SS substantially decreased fruit fly emergence from the sampled mangoes. GSH and GA treated mangoes showed reduced C. cosyra and C. rosa infestation by ~70-75% relative to control (W), and with variation noted in the pheromone applied and the recovered fruit fly species. The adult emergence in pheromone-treated plants compared favorably with the positive control SS. However, the HMPs had little impact on reducing Bactrocera dorsalis infestation of mangoes. The decrease in fruit fly emergence in sampled mango fruits from HMP treated trees corroborate previous laboratory results and support the prospect of using HMPs in the management of African fruit fly species. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recurring Late December Outbreaks of Adult Simulium jenningsi Group Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Seminary, Mississippi, USA

Abstract Black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are reemerging as biting and nuisance pests in many southern states, presumably from improving water quality in creeks and rivers. Since 2009, entomologists at Mississippi State University and the Mississippi Department of Health have conducted surveys to ascertain what black fly species are present in the state as well as their geographic distribution and seasonality. These surveys revealed what appears to be a recurring, significant emergence of black flies every year around 25 December at one site in southern Mississippi. In this study, adult black flies were collected from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2021 by hand netting in the exact same way each time at Okatoma Creek, Seminary, MS. Forty-eight collecting trips to the site over the 4-yr period yielded a total of 176 black flies, all morphologically identified as Simulium jenningsi Group Malloch. Molecular identification was successfully performed on 17 specimens collected during the December outbreaks. Of the 17 specimens analyzed, 10 and 7 specimens grouped with 100% bootstrap confidence inside clades comprising S. jenningsi or S. podostemi, respectively.

Traditional knowledge, beliefs and practices on collection of lake flies (chaoborus and chironomus sp.) and their implications on food security

Lake Flies are edible insects with the potential of contributing to food security in that they are an alternative protein and micronutrient food source in freshwater lake regions. The main challenge in exploiting the lake flies is the difficulty in the collection. This study was conducted to identify sustainable traditional collection practices and forecasting techniques of lake flies and was implemented in Rusinga and Mfangano Island in Kenya. The ethnographic study employed multiple methods of data collection: focus group discussion (FGD), observations, and interview schedules. 5 (3 female and 2 male) key informants were selected for interview schedules aged above 60 years. 48 (19 female and 29 male) participants took part in FGDs they were divided into 8 sets each containing 6 participants and an age range between 18 to 40 years. Open data kit (ODK) software was used for data collection while analysis was conducted via thematic analysis framework using Nvivo version 10 software. Questions were administered on traditional lake-flies emergence forecasting, collection techniques, and devices. The emergence of lake flies is determined by moon sightings, the presence of strong winds, and the rainy season. Lake flies can be collected: in mid-air flight mode, in bushes along the shore, and during night operations using a light source (bulb, touch). Lake flies are collected using traditional tools: a woven basket with a stick handle, pots, a plastic basin, and a woven basket with a stick attached. Cultural myths associated with lake flies included: marriage partner/business customers’ attraction. Uses include libido enhancement, remedy for sickness, and good fish harvest indicator. In conclusion, lake flies have the potential to contribute to food and nutrition security as affordable and locally available alternative protein and micronutrient sources.

Influence of Monensin and Diflubenzuron on the Control of Immature Horn Fly and House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) and Chemical Composition of Cattle Feces.

Twelve Angus × Hereford crossbred heifers were used in a completely randomized design to evaluate the effects of monensin and diflubenzuron feed additives on horn fly (Haematobia irritans) (L.) and house fly (Musca domestica) (L.) immature development. Heifers were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups; 1) monensin fed at label rate, 2) diflubenzuron fed at label rate, 3) monensin and diflubenzuron fed at label rates together, and 4) nonsupplemented control. All treatments were administered from SD 0 to 28, followed by a 16-d wash-out period for a total study duration of 45 d and assayed to assess adult fly emergence, as well as fecal pH and fecal bacterial and total protein. A treatment × day interaction (P < 0.01) was observed for adult fly emergence. Fly emergence was not affected (P ≥ 0.05) by monensin, but was reduced during the 28 d treatment period when diflubenzuron was present (P = 0.01). Fecal pH, fecal bacterial protein, and total protein were not affected by any of the treatments (P ≥ 0.13). It is concluded that diflubenzuron is effective against both horn and house fly development regardless of the presence of monensin.

Assessment of Fruit Fly Infestation on Melon Manis Terengganu (Cucumis melo var. inodorus) at Different Fruit Ripening Stages

Cucumis melo var inodorus or known as Melon Manis Terengganu (MMT) is a new variety of rockmelon and has been developed and grown exclusively in Terengganu since 2015. However, pest infestations such as fruit flies have reduced melon production yields, and research on fruit flies is still poorly studied in this new variety. Therefore, this study was aimed to identify the fruit fly’s species infested MMT as well as to determine the infestation rate of fruit flies on MMT at different ripening stages. The infested MMT fruits were randomly collected for three consecutive weeks prior to harvest and each week was represented as unripe stage (Week 1), ripe stage (Week 2) and fully-ripe stage (Week 3). Each week, 10 fruit samples were brought to the laboratory and weighed individually before being placed in plastic containers. The fruits were reared until all larvae transformed into pupae for determination of infestation rates and emergence of adult fruit flies for species identification. A total of 232 of fruit flies adults emerged from 30 MMT fruit samples collected and all the flies were identified as Zeugodacus cucurbitae (previously known as Bactrocera cucurbitae). Unripe stage fruits recorded the highest infestation rate of fruit flies at 28.24 ± 18.58 pupae/kg and followed by ripe stage at 24.47 ± 8.17 pupae/kg. Whilst the fully-ripe stage had the lowest infestation rate of flies at 13.5 ± 5.07 pupae/kg. However, no significant difference (P&gt;0.05) of infestation rate was recorded among the different fruit stages. This study contributes new information on the fruit fly’s species that attack MMT and its infestation rate. Hence, these findings are expected to help better management of MMT fruit flies in the future.

Effect of alloxan on the locomotor ability and developmental stages of Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon-R)

BackgroundVarious bleaching agents are used in food industries among which some reacts to form alloxan. Therefore, the alloxan can indirectly enter a human body and thus form an important aspects for studying its effect on the development. In the present study, the effect of alloxan was studied on the climbing ability, pupation and emergence of flies. Fifty first instar larvae were introduced separately in the vials containing 0.001, 0.002, 0.003 and 0.004 M of alloxan. Then, the duration of pupation as well as the emergence of flies was noted each day till 20 days. The climbing assay was performed on the emerged flies.ResultsThe results suggest that alloxan at 0.002, 0.003 and 0.004 M is potent in inducing the delay in pupation, emergence (of adult flies) and decreased locomotor activity of Drosophila melanogaster.ConclusionsAlloxan exhibits toxic effects at 0.002, 0.003 and 0.004 M in Drosophila.