Elite Sport Settings Research Articles

Prevalence and Correlates of Mental Health Symptoms and Well-Being Among Elite Sport Coaches and High-Performance Support Staff

BackgroundThere is growing understanding of mental health needs in elite athletes, but less is known about the mental health of coaches and support staff who work within elite sport settings. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of mental health symptoms in elite-level coaches and high-performance support staff (HPSS) and compared rates against published elite athlete samples. A cross-sectional, anonymous, online survey was administered to coaches and HPSS working in Australia’s high-performance sports system. Main outcomes were scores on validated measures of psychological distress, probable ‘caseness’ for a diagnosable psychological condition, alcohol consumption and sleep disturbance.ResultsData were provided by 78 coaches (mean age = 46.4 years, 23.8% female) and 174 HPSS (mean age = 40.0 years, 56.7% female). Overall, 41.2% of the sample met probable caseness criteria, 13.9% reported high to very high psychological distress, 41.8% reported potential risky alcohol consumption and 17.7% reported moderate to severe sleep disturbance, with no statistically significant differences between coaches and HPSS. The most robust correlates of psychological distress and probable caseness were dissatisfaction with social support and dissatisfaction with life balance, while poor life balance was also associated with increased alcohol consumption and poor social support with sleep disturbance. Coaches and HPSS reported similar prevalence of mental health outcomes compared to rates previously observed in elite athletes, with the exception of higher reporting of alcohol consumption among coaches and HPSS.ConclusionsElite-level coaches and HPSS reported levels of psychological distress and probable caseness similar to those previously reported among elite-level athletes, suggesting that these groups are also susceptible to the pressures of high-performance sporting environments. Screening for mental health symptoms in elite sport should be extended from athletes to all key stakeholders in the daily training environment, as should access to programs to support mental health and well-being.

Psychological safety in elite sport settings: a psychometric study of the Sport Psychological Safety Inventory.

ObjectivesEffectively supporting the mental health of elite athletes and coaches requires validated tools that assess not only individual-level factors but organisational-level influences. The aim of this study was to develop a bespoke scale assessing perceived psychological safety within high-performance environments.Methods337 elite athletes (M=24.12 years) and 238 elite-level coaches and high-performance support staff (HPSS; M=41.9 years) identified via the Australian Institute of Sport provided data across a range of mental health and well-being domains. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; n=169 athletes) with parallel analysis identified the Sport Psychological Safety Inventory (SPSI) factor structure. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) validated the identified structure in separate validation subsamples of athletes (n=168) and coaches/HPSS (n=238).ResultsEFA identified the 11-item, 3-factor SPSI. Factors assessed domains of the Mentally Healthy Environment, Mental Health Literacy and Low Self-Stigma. All scale items loaded strongly on their specific domain. CFA model fit indices validated scale structure for athletes and coaches/HPSS. Internal consistency and convergent and divergent validity were evident. Logistic regression indicated that incrementally higher Mentally Healthy Environment scores reduced the likelihood of athletes scoring in the ‘moderate’ range of general and athlete-specific distress, with a stronger endorsement of the Low Self-Stigma subscale reducing the likelihood of being identified for athlete-specific distress.ConclusionPsychometric properties of the SPSI support scale utility among athletes and coaches/HPSS in elite sports settings, though further psychometric efforts are needed. This brief measure may support benchmarking efforts across elite sporting contexts to improve mental health culture and broader well-being among athletes and coaches/HPSS.

Implementing Skill Acquisition Research in High-Performance Sport: Reflecting on the Importance of Autonomy-Support for Successful Collaboration

Perceptual-cognitive-motor skills, such as visual anticipation, are pivotal for superior performance in sport. However, there are only a limited number of skill acquisition specialists working with coaches to develop these skills in athletes. The purpose of this paper is to present a brief reflection on the use of psychological strategies to create an autonomy-supportive environment to embed a skill acquisition research project in high-performance sport. The research project was conducted with the Australian national field hockey high-performance unit and investigated individual differences in expert goalkeepers’ visual anticipation. The paper first discusses the role of a skill acquisition specialist, how they collaborate with coaches and athletes, and barriers to collaboration. The paper then outlines how psychological strategies can be used to create an autonomy-supportive environment to build a relationship and establish a research collaboration with a team. Further, the paper discusses the importance of continually involving coaches and athletes in the research process to facilitate their engagement and self-determined motivation to complete the project. By applying psychological strategies to create an autonomy-supportive environment, sports scientists may have greater success in overcoming the many barriers to conduct research in an elite sport setting, with the outcomes highly valuable for athlete development.

An Examination of the Relationship Between Coaches' Transformational Leadership and Athletes' Personal and Group Characteristics in Elite Youth Soccer.

There is a growing body of the literature highlighting the positive impact of transformational leadership behaviours across contexts, including sport. However, there is a lack of knowledge of this relationship within elite sport settings. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between elite youth athletes’ perceptions of coaches’ transformational coaching-behaviours and variables that have been linked to transformational leadership in other settings (i.e., group cohesion, motivational climate, self-regulation of learning and athlete satisfaction). Norwegian elite youth soccer players (n = 753) selected into the national talent development program completed questionnaires to measure the variables of interest. Using structural equation modelling, results revealed a positive path from transformational leadership to both task and social cohesion, task-oriented motivational climates, self-regulation of learning and athlete satisfaction. Finally, a negative path from transformational leadership to ego-oriented climates was identified. The findings are in line with previous research in associating transformational leadership behaviours with adaptive outcomes, and further indicating that such relationships may also be valid in elite sport contexts.

UNDERSTANDING MENTAL HEALTH IN MALAYSIAN ELITE SPORTS: A QUALITATIVE APPROACH

The attention in the society and rapid expansion of interest on the status and challenges of mental health among sporting athletes, especially in the elite sports setting, had increased exponentially. The present study was aimed to explore and gain a better understanding of mental health and psychological well-being of Malaysian elite athletes. It also provides insights into a broader aspect based on participants’ personal experiences. A semi-structured interview was conducted for all 32 athletes (male, n=16; female, n=16) from a variety of sport: individual, team-sports; able-bodied, and Paralympic. Participants were aged between 19-38 years old (mean 25.69 years) from various ethnicity and religions. Six (6) themes (Personal understanding on mental health; Stigma of mental health; Symptoms, effects and sources of mental health; Coping strategies; Mental health and well-being support; Advice of athletes) and 19 subthemes were derived based on qualitative thematic analysis. Based on the analysis, subthemes, i.e. Presentation in mass media; Transition; Personal life-related issues; Performance expectation; Sporting environment are significant stressors causing mental health issues. The influence of spirituality and religion on the topic of mental health was also being highlighted. In conclusion, it is hopeful that the present study will stimulate interest and discussion in identifying methods and direction for both researchers and practitioners in bridging the theoretical-applied gap and offer effective supports to Malaysian athletes.

Infographic. COVID-19 RT-PCR testing for elite athletes

This infographic outlines evidence-based recommendations on COVID-19 reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) testing in elite sport settings, aiming to protect personal and population health, and acknowledging resources and expertise that are...

Understanding mental health in malaysian elite sports

The attention in the society and rapid expansion of interest on the status and challenges of mental health among sporting athletes, especially in the elite sports setting, had increased exponentially. The present study was aimed to explore and gain a better understanding of mental health and psychological well-being of Malaysian elite athletes. It also provides insights into a broader aspect based on participants' personal experiences. A semi-structured interview was conducted for all 32 athletes (male, n = 16; female, n = 16) from a variety of sport: individual, team-sports; able-bodied, and Paralympic. Participants were aged between 19-38 years old (mean 25.69 years) from various ethnicity and religions. Six (6) themes (Personal understanding on mental health; Stigma of mental health; Symptoms, effects and sources of mental health; Coping strategies; Mental health and well-being support; Advice of athletes) and 19 subthemes were derived based on qualitative thematic analysis. Based on the analysis, subthemes, i.e. Presentation in mass media; Transition; Personal life-related issues; Performance expectation; Sporting environment are significant stressors causing mental health issues. The influence of spirituality and religion on the topic of mental health was also being highlighted. In conclusion, it is hopeful that the present study will stimulate interest and discussion in identifying methods and direction for both researchers and practitioners in bridging the theoretical-applied gap and offer effective supports to Malaysian athletes.

UEFA expert group statement on nutrition in elite football. Current evidence to inform practical recommendations and guide future research

Football is a global game which is constantly evolving, showing substantial increases in physical and technical demands. Nutrition plays a valuable integrated role in optimising performance of elite players during...

Reproducibility of isokinetic knee testing using the novel isokinetic SMM iMoment dynamometer.

Isokinetic dynamometry is the gold standard for testing maximal strength in elite sport and rehabilitation settings. To be clinically useful, such tests should be valid and reliable. Despite some evidence regarding the relative test vs retest reliability of knee dynamometry, there is still a paucity of research regarding the absolute reliability parameters. The purpose of this study was to assess the absolute and relative intra-device reproducibility of isokinetic knee flexion and extension using the novel SMM iMoment dynamometer. A total of 19 participants (13 males and 6 females, aged 24 (2) years, height 178 (9) cm and weight 76 (11) kg) performed two identical knee isokinetic tests with at least a week of rest between measurements. Peak torque of knee extension and flexion were determined at 60°/s. Moderate (0.892) to excellent (0.988) relative reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was obtained for peak knee torque. Absolute reliability assessed with a standard error of measurement (SEM %) was low, ranging from 2.54% to 6.93%, whereas the smallest real difference (SRD %) was moderate, ranging from 7.04% to 19.22%. Furthermore, there were no significant correlations between means and differences of two measurements, and Bland-Altman plots also showed no signs of heteroscedasticity. Our measurement protocol established the moderate to excellent reliability of the novel SMM iMoment isokinetic dynamometer. Therefore, this dynamometer can be applied in sport rehabilitation settings to measure maximal knee strength.

Recovery of Force-Time Characteristics After Australian Rules Football Matches: Examining the Utility of the Isometric Midthigh Pull.

Purpose: This study assessed the utility of force-time characteristics from the isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) as a measure of neuromuscular function after elite-level Australian rules football matches. It was hypothesized that rate characteristics of force development would demonstrate a different response magnitude and recovery time course than peak force measurements. Methods: Force-time characteristics of the IMTP (peak force, 0- to 50-ms rate of force development [RFD], 100- to 200-ms RFD) were collected at 48 (G+2), 72 (G+3), and 96 h (G+4) after 3 competitive Australian rules football matches. Results: Meaningful reductions (>75% of the smallest worthwhile change) were observed at G+2, G+3, and G+4 for RFD 0-50 milliseconds (-25.8%, -17.5%, and -16.9%) and at G+2 and G+3 for RFD 100-200 milliseconds (-15.7% and -11.7%). No meaningful reductions were observed for peak force at any time point (G+2 -4.0%, G+3 -3.9%, G+4 -2.7%). Higher week-to-week variation was observed for RFD 0-50 milliseconds (G+2 17.1%, G+3 27.2%, G+4 19.3%) vs both RFD 100-200 milliseconds (G+2 11.3%, G+3 11.5%, G+4 7.2%) and peak force (G+2 4.8%, G+3 4.4%, G+4 8.4%). Conclusions: These findings highlight the potential use of rate characteristics from the IMTP as measures of neuromuscular function in elite sport settings, and in particular RFD 100-200 milliseconds due to its higher reliability. Interestingly, peak force collected from the IMTP was not meaningfully suppressed at any time point after elite Australian rules football match play. This suggests that rate characteristics from IMTP may provide more sensitive and valuable insight regarding neuromuscular function recovery kinetics than peak measures.

Circulating, Cell-Free DNA for Monitoring Player Load in Professional Football.

Purpose: Player monitoring in elite sport settings is becoming increasingly important. Questionnaire-based methods and biomarkers such as circulating, cell-free DNA (cfDNA) are suggested for load monitoring. cfDNA concentrations were shown to increase depending on total distance covered in football and were associated with overtraining in weight lifters. Thus, the objective of this study was to examine whether cfDNA is feasible as a monitoring tool in elite football players. Methods: Capillary blood samples from 22 male elite football players were collected over 4 mo of a regular season. Sampling was conducted the day before, 1 day after, or several days after regular-season games and/or training. In addition, each player filled in a visual analogue scale (VAS) questionnaire including the items "general perceived exertion," "muscular fatigue," and "mental fatigue." Performance during training and games was tracked by the Catapult system and with the OPTA system, respectively. Results: cfDNA values were significantly elevated in players the day after regular-season games (1.4-fold; P = .0004) in line with the scores of the VAS. Both parameters showed significantly higher values during midweek-game weeks. cfDNA concentrations correlated with training data, and VAS was correlated with the tracking of the season games. However, cfDNA and VAS did not correlate with each other. Conclusions: cfDNA concentrations at rest and VAS scores are influenced by previous load in professional football players. Future studies will reveal whether cfDNA might serve as a practically applicable marker for player load in football players.

The Translation of Sport Science Research to the Field: A Current Opinion and Overview on the Perceptions of Practitioners, Researchers and Coaches.

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the collated integration of practitioner expertise, athlete values and research evidence aimed to optimise the decision-making process surrounding sport performance. Despite the academic interest afforded to sport science research, our knowledge of how this research is applied in elite sport settings is limited. This current opinion examines the existing evidence of the translation of sport science research into the field, with a tailored focus on the current perceptions of practitioners, researchers and coaches. Recent studies show that practitioners and researchers report they ascertain sport science knowledge differently, with coaches preferring personal interactions compared with coaching courses or scientific journals. The limited peer-reviewed research shows that coaches perceive their knowledge is greater in fields such as tactical/technical areas, rather than physical fitness or general conditioning. This likely explains coaches' greater perceived value in research dedicated to technical and tactical expertise, as well as mental training and skill acquisition. Practitioners place a large emphasis on the need for research in physical fitness areas, which is likely due to their occupational focus. There are many perceived barriers of sport science research application, including funding, time, coach/player/staff 'buy in' and research questions that may not apply to the setting. We contend that researchers and practitioners may benefit in producing research, ascertaining knowledge and disseminating findings in alternative methods that better align with coaches' needs. In addition, educational strategies that focus on real-world context and promote social interaction between coaches, practitioners, organisational personnel and researchers would likely benefit all stakeholders.

The Development of a Personalised Training Framework: Implementation of Emerging Technologies for Performance.

Over the last decade, there has been considerable interest in the individualisation of athlete training, including the use of genetic information, alongside more advanced data capture and analysis techniques. Here, we explore the evidence for, and practical use of, a number of these emerging technologies, including the measurement and quantification of epigenetic changes, microbiome analysis and the use of cell-free DNA, along with data mining and machine learning. In doing so, we develop a theoretical model for the use of these technologies in an elite sport setting, allowing the coach to better answer six key questions: (1) To what training will my athlete best respond? (2) How well is my athlete adapting to training? (3) When should I change the training stimulus (i.e., has the athlete reached their adaptive ceiling for this training modality)? (4) How long will it take for a certain adaptation to occur? (5) How well is my athlete tolerating the current training load? (6) What load can my athlete handle today? Special consideration is given to whether such an individualised training framework will outperform current methods as well as the challenges in implementing this approach.

Interplay of motivation and self-regulation throughout the development of elite athletes

ABSTRACT Recent development in the understanding of human motivation has highlighted the crucial and reciprocal role of motivation on cognitive processes. In elite sport settings, athletes are subject to external forces that do not necessarily correspond with their inherent drives. However, they seem to develop cognitive competencies to cope with external forces, when planning, monitoring, and reflecting on their high-level achievements. The current study aims to explore likely interactions between motivation and cognitive processes as athletes develop from novice to elite levels. Five female Olympic and World Championship medallists were interviewed. A thematic analysis revealed how motivation and self-regulation competencies interchangeably influenced athletes’ career trajectories asynchronously. Chronologically, four themes emerged: 1) Motivational shifts evoked planning and self-control competencies, 2) The external control constrained athletes’ self-regulation, 3) Self-control and reflection in extrinsically driven athletes, and 4) Elite athletes’ multidimensional motivation and self-regulation profile. Initially, intrinsic motivation prompted athletes’ participation, but the competitive nature of sport activities led to a shift toward more external forms of motivation. This motivational shift was accompanied by changes in self-regulation competencies, particularly planning and self-control, rather than self-reflection. Over time, athletes’ increased sport-specific self-confidence contributed to further refinement of self-regulation competencies and integrated motivational regulations. Rather than exploring motivation and cognitive competencies individually, current study findings highlight dynamic interactions between these concepts that influences athletes’ ongoing development to elite level performances.

Discursive practices around the body of the female athlete: An analysis of sport psychology interactions in elite sport

ObjectiveTo examine the discursive practices surrounding athletes’ bodies with a particular focus on a) how food, the body and agency around eating and exercising practices are constructed, as well as b) how dominant discourses and narratives are deployed. MethodA case study design was used, examining interactions from three female athletes with a sport psychologist regarding their body composition. The psychology sessions took place within an elite sport setting. Recordings from three initial psychology sessions were recorded. Analysis drew on a synthesis of discursive psychology and conversation analysis. ResultsCompeting depictions of food and the body were drawn on by the athletes and the psychologist in order to either reproduce or resist taken for granted notions about a need to reduce body composition to improve performance. Discursive tensions were evident in talk around female athletes’ bodies, with a performance narrative functioning to regulate athletes’ bodies, at the same time that athletes oriented to a dominant notion of the thin female body. Food was also variously constructed in moral terms and as a neutral energy source. Throughout the sessions, individual agency for the body and for resolving the ‘problem’ of body composition was reproduced, with broader discursive and institutional practices overlooked. ConclusionThis study provides an in insight into how talk around the body and eating practices takes place within one institutional context occurring within an elite sport setting. In particular, this study highlights how potentially problematic discourses and practices are privileged and reproduced or resisted. Shifting the focus to technique rather than body modification and nutrition may be beneficial for athletes’ wellbeing. Further implications for practice are discussed.

Crafting a one-dimensional identity: exploring the nexus between totalisation and reinvention in an elite sports environment

ABSTRACTDespite burgeoning literature on the agency of sports coaches and the nature of coaching fields, scant attention has been paid to the process through which coaches’ identities are socially constructed. Informed by Goffman's concept, total institution, and Scott's reinventive institution, this article explores how coaches’ athletic experiences within totalising sports environments influence the formation of their identity as coaches. Drawing on South Korea's elite sports context where almost all high-performance coaches are former athletes who share experiences of being trained under an authoritative sport regime, a qualitative analysis was conducted on data from documents and in-depth interviews with 26 participants. Findings reveal that: (1) individual selves in the coercive sports setting were eroded and rewritten by the totalising nature of the social architecture; (2) nevertheless, the individuals displayed a certain degree of agency in their desire to reinvent themselves in the sports setting; and (3) the nexus of institutional power of the sport setting and voluntary participation of the individual athletes engendered a one-dimensional identity that was optimised only for the elite sports setting. These findings suggest that the identities shaped within South Korea's elite sports environment steered athletes to become coaches upon retirement from sports, reluctantly returning to, or remaining in, their comfort zone – the totalising environment of elite sports.

Case Study 2: Employing a group goal setting intervention within an elite sport setting

Case Study 2: Employing a group goal setting intervention within an elite sport setting

Realising the Potential of Urine and Saliva as Diagnostic Tools in Sport and Exercise Medicine.

Accurate monitoring of homeostatic perturbations following various psychophysiological stressors is essential in sports and exercise medicine. Various biomarkers are routinely used as monitoring tools in both clinical and elite sport settings. Blood collection and muscle biopsies, both invasive in nature, are considered the gold standard for the analysis of these biomarkers in exercise science. Exploring non-invasive methods of collecting and analysing biomarkers that are capable of providing accurate information regarding exercise-induced physiological and psychological stress is of obvious practical importance. This review describes the potential benefits, and the limitations, of using saliva and urine to ascertain biomarkers capable of identifying important stressors that are routinely encountered before, during, or after intense or unaccustomed exercise, competition, over-training, and inappropriate recovery. In particular, we focus on urinary and saliva biomarkers that have previously been used to monitor muscle damage, inflammation, cardiovascular stress, oxidative stress, hydration status, and brain distress. Evidence is provided from a range of empirical studies suggesting that urine and saliva are both capable of identifying various stressors. Although additional research regarding the efficacy of using urine and/or saliva to indicate the severity of exercise-induced psychophysiological stress is required, it is likely that these non-invasive biomarkers will represent "the future" in sports and exercise medicine.

Detecting meaningful body composition changes in athletes using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) imaging is considered to provide a valid and reliable estimation of body composition when stringent scanning protocols are adopted. However, applied practitioners are not always able to achieve this level of control and the subsequent impact on measurement precision is not always taken into account when evaluating longitudinal body composition changes. The primary aim of this study was to establish the reliability of DXA in an applied elite sport setting to investigate whether real body composition changes can be detected. Additionally, the performance implications of these changes during the training year were investigated. Forty-eight well-trained athletes (from four diverse sports) underwent two DXA scans using a ‘real-world’ approach (with limited pre-scan controls), typically within 48 h, to quantify typical error of measurement (TEM). Twenty-five athletes underwent further scans, before and after specific training and competition blocks. ‘True’ body composition changes were evaluated using 2 × TEM thresholds. Twelve bob skeleton athletes also performed countermovement jump and leg press tests at each time point. Many ‘true’ body composition changes were detected and coincided with the primary training emphases (e.g. lean mass gains during hypertrophy-based training). Clear relationships (r ± 90% CI) were observed between performance changes (countermovement jump and leg press) and changes in lean mass (0.53 ± 0.26 and 0.35 ± 0.28, respectively) and fat mass (−0.44 ± 0.27 and −0.37 ± 0.28, respectively). DXA was able to detect real body composition changes without the use of stringent scanning controls. Associations between changes in body composition and performance demonstrated the potential influence of these changes on strength and power indices.

High-performance sport, learning and culture: new horizons for sport pedagogues?

Background: Research in sport coaching and sport pedagogy including studies published in this special issue bring to the fore the relationship between learning and culture in contexts of high-performance sport. This paper acknowledged that how learning, culture and their relationship are conceptualised is a crucial issue for researchers and professionals in high-performance sport.Purpose and approach: This paper arises from a theoretical analysis of the research studies presented in this special issue. The analysis undertaken focused on the understanding and representation of the concepts of learning and culture and critically examined the methodological application of particular conceptualisations. The intention was to extend insight into both theoretical and methodological issues associated with understanding and researching athlete and coach learning, and high-performance sport settings.Findings and discussion: This paper identifies tendencies for separatist and reductionist thinking about learning and culture in high-performance sport settings. A relational perspective is identified as critical to extending research and professional practice that is directed towards learning and/or culture. Researchers are urged to avoid identifying either athlete or coach learning (only) with specific events or experiences, and similarly avoid positioning culture as something that sits apart from athletes’ and coaches’ participation and learning in elite sport settings. The dual notions of ‘learning practices as cultural practice’ and ‘cultural practice as pedagogical practice’ are proposed as a basis for holistic thinking about learning and culture in high-performance sport settings. The extent to which such thinking is reflected in the various contributions to the special issue is considered. Attention is then directed to the methodological challenges that researchers face if they are to reflect a conceptualisation of learning as both embedded and embodied in cultural practices. Challenging and extending the underlying vision of learning that researchers, coaches and athletes have is revealed as a critical consideration in regard to research design, data collection and ways in which participants are variously positioned, represented and ‘involved’ in research. Embodied perspectives are identified as particularly worthy of greater attention in contemporary research that seeks to extend understanding of athlete and/or coaches’ learning and lived experiences within and amidst elite sporting cultures. Recent scholarship focusing on the body and lived experience is identified as providing theoretical and methodological insights that can extend future research and practice.Conclusions: Foregrounding a relational perspective is fundamental to extending the understanding of learning and culture in high-performance sport. Future research also needs to clearly embrace the methodological challenges presented by new conceptualisations.