Functional safety of spacecraft particularly concerning electromagnetic compatibility with stationary plasma thrusters

Partial Differential Equation (PDE)-constrained optimization has emerged as a powerful framework for electromagnetic field control, enabling systematic design of devices and materials that meet stringent performance, efficiency, and reliability requirements. This review traces the development of PDE-based formulations grounded in Maxwell’s equations, highlighting discretization strategies, adjoint-state methods, and large-scale solvers that make high-dimensional optimization problems computationally tractable. Key applications are examined across antenna design, electromagnetic compatibility and shielding, nanophotonics, metamaterials, biomedical imaging, and emerging quantum technologies. These studies illustrate how PDE-constrained optimization bridges physics-based modeling with engineering innovation, achieving designs that were previously inaccessible through heuristic or trial-and-error approaches. Despite rapid progress, challenges persist in scalability, nonconvex optimization landscapes, uncertainty quantification, and multiphysics integration. Recent advances in reduced-order modeling, surrogate-assisted optimization, and robust design strategies offer promising avenues to overcome these limitations. Furthermore, new computational paradigms, particularly high-performance computing and data-driven surrogates, are reshaping possibilities for solving complex, nonlinear electromagnetic problems at scale. Overall, PDE-constrained optimization has matured into a versatile and rigorous approach with significant implications for next-generation communication, energy, biomedical, and quantum technologies. Continued methodological and computational advancements will be critical for realizing its full potential in real-world electromagnetic design.

In low-voltage networks, phase-unbalanced loads are caused by the presence of single-phase consumers. Furthermore, due to the presence of railway traction substations powered by two phases in the power supply system, there is a problem of electromagnetic compatibility between the traction power supply system and the rest of the electrical power system. An unbalanced mode of operation results in additional energy losses, deterioration in power supply quality, reduced system efficiency and stability, and decreased service life of devices. For most low-voltage networks, the zero-sequence voltage asymmetry coefficient typically exceeds the requirements of power quality standards. To optimize the network operating mode with asymmetric loads, this paper proposes to apply load balancing by phases. The objective of this study is a comparative analysis of algorithms for balancing loads across phases in low-voltage networks to select the most effective one according to the criterion of minimum total costs while observing the specified restrictions on the asymmetry coefficient and voltage levels in the nodes. Materials and methods. An optimization method based on a heuristic algorithm – the particle swarm algorithm – was applied. Power flows and voltage values ​​at the nodes were calculated on a per-phase basis, taking into account active power and voltage losses. The particle swarm algorithm was implemented in the Python programming language. Results. To balance loads, two objective functions have been considered. The first function included the total network operating costs, voltage deviation at the nodes, and the zero-sequence voltage asymmetry coefficient. The second function comprised the total network operating costs and voltage deviation at the nodes. A study of two optimization algorithms has been conducted: based on sensitivity coefficients and the particle swarm algorithm; as well as solely on the particle swarm algorithm. The first algorithm comprised two stages: identifying potential nodes for balancing with the help of sensitivity coefficients, and then determining device power using the particle swarm algorithm. The second algorithm determined the device installation nodes and their power applying the particle swarm algorithm. The results obtained from the two optimization algorithms and two different objective functions have been analyzed. The values ​​of the asymmetry coefficients of zero-sequence voltage and voltages in network nodes in pre-optimization and post-optimization modes have been investigated. According to the obtained results, the lowest total costs will be achieved with two-stage optimization (with the help of sensitivity coefficients and the particle swarm algorithm). This optimization requires an objective function that includes the total cost index and the voltage deviation index at the nodes. Conclusions. When optimizing a network for load balancing, the algorithm applying sensitivity coefficients in combination with the particle swarm algorithm proves to be effective. The objective function should include total network operating costs and voltage deviations. This optimization ensures reduction of active power losses by 12.8% of the pre-optimization losses and decrease of total network operating costs.

This paper presents a comparative study of various artificial intelligence methods, including artificial neural networks (ANNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), k-nearest neighbors (KNN), random forests (RFs), and particle swarm optimization (PSO) techniques, to see which one can predict conducted electromagnetic interference (CEMI) better. The DC/DC converter simulations and experimental results demonstrated a high level of matching. According to the simulation results, the datasets were highlighted by varying key parameters related to the supply voltage, load current, switching frequency, duty cycle, component choice, PCB layout, filter capacitance, and gate resistance in a systematic way. During the assessment, each AI technique is checked regarding prediction accuracy, computational efficiency, and error rates using different metrics such as mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (R2). It is observed that KNN performs better than the other methods, giving only the lowest error in predictions and showing very fast computing speed. Furthermore, KNN gave the best results with R2 above 0.97, MAE below 5.9 dBµV, and RMSE under 7.3 dBµV. This method worked better than others in all test cases. According to the measurements, the predicted and actual EMI levels match very well and show that the proposed method is strong and reliable. Further, basically, these results show that KNN has the same potential to work as an effective and efficient tool for predicting CEMI in power electronics. Its strong performance can further help in developing better and more reliable power systems for practical use, while the system itself provides valuable insights to engineers for electromagnetic compatibility design and compliance.

Purpose. Reducing active energy losses at industrial enterprises by improving the efficiency of renewable energy sources integration through the creation of an energy-efficient innovative power grid. Methodology. The work used methods of system synthesis and computer modeling to calculate active power and voltage losses in power grid components. Findings. The use of the proposed structure of an innovative power grid for industrial enterprises significantly reduces power losses in workshop grids and unwanted power flows in inter-transformer cable lines, as well as solving the problem of electromagnetic compatibility of the grid’s loads. Originality. The paper proposes a scheme for an energy-efficient innovative power grid for industrial enterprises, according to which consumers and energy sources are connected to the corresponding local AC grids of high-quality and low-quality electricity, as well as a DC grid that combines the two above-mentioned grids into the enterprise’s power supply system. The use of this approach significantly reduces the cost of integrating renewable energy sources and solves the problem of electromagnetic compatibility with regard to the elements of the enterprise’s power grid. Practical value. The use of an innovative power grid scheme for industrial enterprises does not lead to additional unwanted power flows in inter-transformer cable lines if renewable energy sources are involved, and also reduces active power losses in workshop grids. The results of a comparative analysis showed that when using the proposed innovative power grid scheme for an industrial enterprise, daily active power losses in its workshops are reduced by more than 40 %.

Background: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) challenges in 2.5D/3D semiconductor packaging arise from the complex coupling between device, interposer, board, and cable domains, which are insufficiently captured by conventional board-level analysis. Method: This study proposes HiPAC-EMC, a packaging-aware EMC workflow that integrates the device, package, PCB, cable harness, line impedance stabilization network (LISN), and receiver elements into an isomorphic co-model. The model mirrors the entire measurement chain and links simulation to real conducted and radiated tests. Validation: The workflow was verified using CISPR-25-compliant conducted measurements, magnetic near-field mapping, and key-point radiated checks at 3 m and 10 m, ensuring model–measurement consistency within ±2–3 dB (1σ ≈ 3.1 dB). Results: Two quantitative indices—the mitigation efficiency (η) and the common-mode hot-spot headroom (CMH)—enabled the traceable evaluation of suppression effectiveness, achieving up to 22–25 dB reduction across dominant 300–800 MHz bands. Significance: The HiPAC-EMC workflow establishes a traceable, reproducible, and measurement-faithful design methodology, providing a practical tool to de-risk EMC during early design and reduce full-band chamber time for advanced semiconductor packaging.

This article presents a comprehensive study dedicated to a fundamental and critically important aspect of the operational efficiency of urban electric transport systems – the quality of the current collection process. The core of the research is the identification, systematization, and in-depth analysis of the key criteria that define the quality of the interaction between the current collector (pantograph) and the contact wire. The author establish and examine the following primary quality parameters: the stability of the electrical contact, which ensures uninterrupted power supply under varying speeds and dynamic loads; the minimization of mechanical wear of the contact pair (pantograph strip and contact wire), directly affecting maintenance costs and infrastructure lifespan; the reduction of electrical losses at the point of contact, crucial for overall energy efficiency; the absence of significant electromagnetic interference generated by contact arcing, which is vital for the electromagnetic compatibility of adjacent electronic systems; and, finally, the overarching criteria of system reliability and durability. Through analytical modeling and a review of operational data, the article substantiates a central thesis: the targeted optimization of the current collection process is not merely a technical improvement but a decisive strategic factor with wide-ranging economic and environmental implications. It is conclusively demonstrated that high-quality current collection is a prerequisite for enhancing the energy efficiency of rolling stock, as reduced losses translate directly into lower electricity consumption per passenger-kilometer. This, in turn, leads to a significant reduction in the operational cost of transportation, impacting the economic sustainability of public transport networks. Furthermore, the environmental dimension is highlighted. By improving energy efficiency, optimized current collection directly contributes to reducing the carbon footprint of urban electric transport. Lower electricity demand per trip results in decreased CO₂ emissions at the power generation stage, even for "green" vehicles. Thus, the study positions advancements in current collection technology as an essential component of sustainable urban mobility strategies, linking engineering solutions to broader goals of energy conservation and environmental protection. The findings underscore the necessity of integrating advanced monitoring, predictive maintenance, and innovative materials science into the design and upkeep of current collection systems for modern trams and trolleybuses.

THE PURPOSE. To consider the problems of the ingress and propagation of electromagnetic interference in individual on-board devices of the electrical complex of the aircraft. To check the object under study of the on-board electrical equipment complex of the aircraft for compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents regarding electromagnetic compatibility. To develop recommendations for the elimination of conductive and inductive interference of the studied object of the on-board complex of electrical equipment of the aircraft. METHODS. To solve the research problems, a set of methods was used, including graph modeling of the topology of electromagnetic interference propagation in the aircraft body, finite element analysis of electromagnetic fields and mathematical modeling methods. RESULTS. The issues of penetration and propagation of electromagnetic interference in structural elements and circuits of electrical systems of an aircraft are investigated. Verification of compliance of on-board electrical equipment with regulatory requirements for electromagnetic compatibility has been performed. A topological model of interference distribution inside the aircraft body has been developed. The analysis of induced interference from external sources of electromagnetic radiation is carried out. Practical recommendations for minimizing conductive and inductive leads in on-board electrical equipment are formulated. CONCLUSION. When conducting a study on compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents in terms of electromagnetic compatibility. It was revealed that it is necessary to refine the methods of shielding sensitive elements of the studied object of the onboard complex of electrical equipment of the aircraft. Several ways to eliminate conductive and inductive interference of the object under study of the on-board complex of electrical equipment of the aircraft were presented and the optimal one was chosen.

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an important factor in power system design. In modern electronic equipment, the reliability design of the power supply system is very important to ensure the stability of the equipment. Based on this, this paper mainly studies the electromagnetic compatibility and system reliability of the power system, and analyzes the electromagnetic interference sources in the power system and their adverse effects on the system. By optimizing the design of key components such as power line, filter and grounding system, an improved design scheme of power supply system is proposed. The experimental results show that the design can significantly improve the reliability of the power supply system, and effectively reduce the impact of electromagnetic interference on the equipment. This study provides an important reference for the electromagnetic compatibility and reliability design of power supply system, and has practical significance for improving the stability of electronic equipment.

Purpose. To develop a conceptual framework for interpreting the results of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) certification tests of electric rolling stock using a multi-level classification system. The study aims to establish a structured method for distinguishing different states of electromagnetic influence based on measured parameters of amplitude and duration, thereby improving the representation and understanding of test data within existing certification procedures. Methodology. Existing approaches to electromagnetic compatibility testing and data interpretation in railway applications were analyzed to identify limitations in differentiating levels of electromagnetic influence. A structured method for precise classification is proposed, based on normalized comparison of interference characteristics. The developed framework defines transition zones between safe and potentially critical operating conditions and allows flexible adaptation of threshold parameters depending on test conditions. This ensures compliance with certification requirements while enhancing the diagnostic depth and informativeness of the results. Findings. A multi-level classification system for electromagnetic interference has been developed, providing a comprehensive representation of EMC test results. The approach enables identification of transitional states and trends toward critical operating conditions that are not detectable under a dichotomous evaluation scheme. It allows a more accurate interpretation of test outcomes, supports early diagnostics of instability, and provides a quantitative basis for assessing the operational resilience of railway systems. Originality. A systematic, multi-level framework for interpreting EMC test results of electric rolling stock has been developed. Unlike conventional methods limited to threshold verification, the proposed approach accounts for the dynamics of parameter variations and their interdependencies, enabling predictive analysis and a more complete understanding of electromagnetic behavior under various operating conditions. Practical value. The developed methodology enhances the accuracy, transparency, and reliability of certification testing for electric locomotives, multiple-unit trains, and other electrically powered rolling stock. It contributes to safer and more efficient railway operation by providing engineers and certification authorities with a comprehensive analytical framework for assessing electromagnetic compatibility. The approach is applicable for optimizing design solutions, refining certification criteria, and supporting the modernization of railway infrastructure.

Against the backdrop of rapid digitalization and intelligent development, wireless charging has emerged as a vital power supply method for modern electronic devices due to its non-contact and convenient advantages. However, it remains constrained by issues such as efficiency degradation with distance and angle, interference from complex electromagnetic environments, and resource conflicts during simultaneous charging of multiple devices. Centered on the theme of “Optimizing Wireless Charging System Parameters Using Intelligent Algorithms,” this study first systematically reviews the current state of research worldwide in system modeling, magnetic coupling mechanisms, compensation topologies, anti-offset techniques, and electromagnetic compatibility. It identifies gaps in addressing dynamic complex operating conditions and multi-objective cooperative optimization. Subsequently, it proposes a multi-objective dynamic optimization approach centered on an enhanced genetic algorithm, supplemented by machine learning-based interference identification and resource allocation strategies. This approach targets critical parameters including coil spacing, transmission frequency, power, and charging sequence. A simulation platform was constructed using MATLAB/Simulink, and validation was conducted on a self-built hardware prototype under four typical operating conditions: single-load operation, offset tolerance, simultaneous multi-device power delivery, and complex electromagnetic interference. Results demonstrate: the optimized system exhibits significantly enhanced efficiency, concurrently improved offset tolerance and interference resistance. Power distribution remains balanced across multi-device scenarios while maintaining robust overall system performance. All trends consistently persist through multiple iterations and hardware upgrades. This research provides theoretical foundations and engineering pathways for scaling wireless charging technology in smart home and electric vehicle applications, offering significant academic value and broad practical prospects.

An omnidirectional electromagnetic shielding surface plays a key role in areas of electromagnetic interference suppression, sensitive electronic component protection, electromagnetic compatibility improvement and data security enhancement. Existing omnidirectional absorbers are usually with large thickness or active components, which face the challenges of batch precision processing and widespread application. In this paper, an ultra-thin, inhomogeneous and passive electromagnetic shielding surface was specially designed and implemented for discrete sources with the help of a range of dual-frequency absorbing units working at different incident angles of the electric field. Both the simulation and experimental results comply with each other, which validates its effectiveness as well. The proposed design and implementation methodology is simple and robust, which also provides ideas for the construction and promotion of electromagnetic shielding surfaces working at other frequencies.

Recent developments in sixth-generation (6G) communication systems have increased interest in using sub-terahertz frequencies, particularly the W-band (75–110 GHz), for high-capacity indoor links. At these frequencies, electromagnetic (EM) wave attenuation introduced by building materials becomes a key factor limiting system performance. The objective of this study is to provide continuous, laboratory-validated attenuation characteristics of commonly used construction and finishing materials across the full W-band. Measurements were conducted in an accredited electromagnetic compatibility laboratory using a calibrated far-field setup with a vector network analyzer, W-band frequency extenders, and standard-gain horn antennas inside an anechoic chamber. For each frequency point, 20 measurements were recorded under controlled environmental conditions. The results show distinct attenuation behaviour depending on material type: wood-based materials exhibit 6–13 dB/cm, construction materials 2–4 dB/cm, and insulation materials below 0.3 dB/cm, while ceramic materials exceed 15–23 dB/cm. A general increase in attenuation with frequency is observed, particularly for materials with higher dielectric losses. The presented dataset enables more accurate indoor propagation modelling, supports ray-tracing and link-budget analyses, and provides practical guidelines for designing radio-transparent building components for future 6G communication systems.

Power converters are essential for solar energy systems but achieving over 96% efficiency at 1 kW and 300 kHz with compact magnetic and EMC compliance remains challenging for high-power-density PV applications. This study presents the design, modeling, and experimental validation of a 1 kW two-phase interleaved boost converter operating from 12 V input to 48 V/20 A output, featuring a single EE32 Litz-wound coupled-core inductor with coupling coefficient k = −0.475 that reduces per-phase current ripple to just 120 mA (0.6% relative) at full load, a load-selective active zero-current switching (ZCS) circuit activated above 5 A threshold via DCR sensing to minimize switching losses without light-load penalties, and digital peak-current control with 2P2Z compensator implemented on an XMC4200 microcontroller, ensuring robust stability. Experimental results demonstrate peak efficiency of 98.6% at approximately 190 W load, full-load efficiency of approximately 96% with total losses limited to 40 W dominated by conduction rather than switching, thermal rise below 80 °C on key components, voltage regulation with less than 1% deviation down to 2 A minimum load, and full compliance with electromagnetic compatibility standards, including EN 55014-1/2 and EN 61000-4-2 ESD testing. The novel integration of selective ZCS, single-core magnetic, and high-frequency operation outperforms prior interleaved boost converters, which typically achieve 94–97% peak efficiency at lower switching frequencies of 20–100 kHz using multiple inductors or complex always-active resonant networks, making this solution particularly suitable for compact photovoltaic micro-converters, electric vehicles, and industrial power supplies requiring high efficiency, reliability, and regulatory compliance.

The demand for transparent antennas in vehicular communication has increased due to their aesthetic integration, aerodynamics, and electromagnetic compatibility. Most researchers have employed multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) antennas for vehicular communication, but grid array antennas (GAAs) offer several advantages over conventional MIMO configurations, such as higher gain, improved directivity, and simpler feed structures. The presented work integrates the benefits of both GAAs and transparent antenna technology to achieve an efficient solution for modern vehicular communication systems. A transparent high gain GAA that operates in the X-band (8-12GHz) for vehicular communication is proposed and developed. The transparent GAA is made up of 29 elements of varying sizes, arranged in two rows. Each element has two L-shaped arms that are connected to the top and bottom of the circular rings, along with a vertical strip that connects the horizontal long strips. The antenna measures 4.81λ0 × 0.66λ0 × 0.026λ0, with a peak gain of 17 dBi at 12GHz. The amplitude tapering of the Taylor synthesis approach results in a side lobe level of -19.2 dB. In the E-plane, the half-power beamwidth is 7.9˚, while in the H-plane, it is 173.6˚. Also, a virtual automobile model is used to investigate the housing effects of the proposed antenna. The findings show that GAA is ideal for advanced driver assistance systems, automotive radar, and vehicle to everything communication. The presented antenna offers aesthetic integration, space savings by using glass surfaces, and better signal reception from unobstructed locations.

The fast adoption of electric motors (EVs) needs charging answers that are green, consumer-pleasant, and seamlessly integrated into each day mobility. conventional plug-in charging faces demanding situations associated with person inconvenience, connector put on, protection, and infrastructure scalability. wi-fi strength switch (WPT) for EVs—primarily based on electromagnetic coupling—emerges as a promising opportunity, permitting contactless strength switch for stationary and dynamic charging packages. This paper affords a comprehensive look at of wireless power transfer technologies for electric motors, covering working concepts, device architectures, strength electronics, control strategies, and efficiency optimization. We overview inductive and resonant WPT methods, examine requirements and protection constraints, and talk alignment tolerance, energy degrees, and interoperability. A simulation-primarily based assessment framework is outlined for stationary and in-motion charging eventualities, assessing efficiency, energy transfer functionality, electromagnetic compatibility, and grid impact. practical deployment demanding situations, which includes infrastructure value, grid integration, and regulatory issues, are discussed together with destiny studies guidelines. The take a look at demonstrates that optimized WPT systems can extensively beautify EV charging comfort, enhance protection, and guide scalable electrified transportation.

The Series APF is an efficient and effective advanced power structure used in power distribution networks to compensate voltage harmonics, sags, swells and all voltage disturbances. The conventional system based on two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) presents several drawbacks and it is limited to low power applications. In order to overcome the disadvantages of this topology the tendency is to use high-level converters such as Flying Capacitor (FC), Cascade H-Bridge (CHB) and Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) inverters. This last configuration has gained much attention due to its advantages in lower switching loss, better electromagnetic compatibility, higher voltage capability, and lower harmonics. Among the NPC converters the nine-level (NPC) inverter is a potential candidate to use in various industrial applications mainly wind power generation, motor drives and active power filters. This research paper proposes a novel configuration of series APF based on nine-level (NPC) inverter topologies controlled by multicarrier phase disposition-sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PD-SPWM) combined with fuzzy logic. To verify the accuracy and test the validity of proposed series APF simulation models are developed using MATLAB-Simulink and SimPowerSystem Toolbox. The performance of proposed system is evaluated in term of harmonics and all voltage disturbances compensation using PQ and modified PQ control strategies. The obtained results prove the effectiveness of proposed series APF using nine-level inverter and confirm the superiority of modified p-q compared to p-q method in term of total harmonic distortion (THDv) reduction.

In inductive power transfer (IPT) charging systems for electric vehicles (EVs), shielding metals are commonly used to reduce electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation emitted by the coils. Nevertheless, these components also introduce additional common mode (CM) noise to the system and affect the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) performance. To mitigate the impact of the CM noise, this paper investigates the asymmetric character of CM impedance of the IPT coils and proposes a distributed circuit model to reflect the stray capacitances of the IPT coils. A comprehensive analysis is conducted to determine the CM impedance and a complete CM noise model is subsequently derived for the IPT system. Based on the novel CM noise model, a balance technique is built on a symmetric compensation circuit topology, without the need for additional hardware. The balance technique is provided to ensure compliance with the CISPR 22 standard for CM noise. An 11kW IPT prototype with the LCC (Inductor-Capacitor-Capacitor) compensation network has been implemented and experiments have been conducted. At low frequency (150kHz to 5MHz), the conductive CM noise is reduced by 5dB; at high frequency (5MHz to 30MHz), is reduced by 13dB, which validates the effectiveness of the proposed balance technique.

Electrically insulating electromagnetic interference shielding composites can block electromagnetic waves by inducing currents within microcapacitors, offering a downsized package paradigm for integrated electronics. However, this contradiction makes it challenging to achieve high shielding performance within insulating systems, which is fundamentally constrained by the difficulty in dramatically strengthening induced current intensity as it is sensitively mapped by the intricate microcapacitor structures. Herein, for the first time, it is revealed that uniform fillers significantly boost current intensity within microcapacitors compared to that of widely-used random fillers by an integrated workflow combining machine learning and simulations, offering a targeted guideline for high-performance insulating shields. Guided by this, a microfluidic technique is utilized to produce uniform, monodisperse Gallium particles in high-throughput as fillers for insulating composites, which exhibit excellent shielding effectiveness (>90 dB, Ka-band) and thermal conductivity (3.7±0.1 W m-1 K-1) at high resistivity (1.7×1012 Ω·m), outperforming conventional non-uniform and conductive systems. Its superior near-field shielding and heat-dissipation abilities allow for directly tackling electromagnetic compatibility and overheating issues without short-circuit failures over a wide temperature range (-196-200 °C). Therefore, this work offers valuable insights into the manufacturing of high-performance insulating shields, potentially breaking the limitations of traditional low-throughput iterative experimentation and promoting microelectronics industry.

Preface to Special Issue on “Researches on Electromagnetic Compatibility in Commemoration of the International Symposium “EMC Japan/APEMC Okinawa””