Electric Two-wheelers Research Articles

Performance optimisation of axial flux permanent magnet brushless DC motor for electric vehicle application with the genetic algorithm (GA) approach

This paper presents the multi-objective performance optimisation of an axial flux permanent magnet brushless dc motor for electric vehicle application. An axial flux brushless motor is designed for direct drive application in electric two-wheelers. It is quite important to improve the efficiency and weight simultaneously, hence multi-objective optimisation is performed. The efficiency and weight of the motor are two opposite performance parameters hence it is a challenging task to improve both simultaneously. The main contribution of the present work is to propose the best combination of design variables obtained using the genetic algorithm optimisation technique. The proposed technique is validated with finite element analysis. The proposed optimisation technique is effective in performance improvement of axial flux brushless dc motors and practically implementable. The novelty of the proposed work is performance improvement without increasing manufacturing complexity – cost and adopting new materials. The proposed optimisation technique can be useful for multi-objective performance improvement of any nonlinear design involving various design variables.

What Drives and Inhibits Consumers from Adopting Electric Two Wheelers: A Behavioural Reasoning Theory Perspective

This study contributes to the body of work on electric vehicle adoption by going beyond traditional frameworks like the Technology Acceptance Model, the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. It presents a comprehensive framework that highlights both the drivers and barriers specific to Tier 2 cities, a significant market for two wheelers in India. Although two wheelers are the preferred mode of transport in India, there has been limited research on the adoption of electric two-wheelers (E2Ws) and their role in achieving decarbonization goals. This study aims to assess the adoption of E2Ws in Tier 2 cities across India, which represents a significant market for two wheelers. To explore this, the study employs a qualitative approach using a theoretical framework to understand the reasons behind the adoption and non-adoption of E2Ws in Tier 2 cities. Eighty-nine interviews were conducted in different Tier 2 cities across four northern states. The results identified several key reasons for adoption, including monetary savings, non-financial incentives, driving pleasure, ease of use for women and senior citizens, suitability for local travel, and a pro-environmental approach. Conversely, the barriers to adoption included high ownership costs, negative motives, inadequate vehicle space, poor repair and service infrastructure, distrust, resale concerns, and negative review consensus. From a managerial perspective, this study provides strategic insights for marketers, outlining ways to promote the mass adoption of E2Ws by understanding and addressing key motivators and inhibitors.

Optimized E-Mobility and Portable Storage Integration in an Isolated Rural Solar Microgrid in Uganda

This work analyses load profiles for East African microgrids, and then investigates the integration of electric two-wheelers and portable storage into a solar PV with battery microgrid in Uganda, East Africa. By introducing e-mobility and portable storage, demand side management strategic load growth can thus be achieved and electricity access can be expanded. Battery degradation is also considered. The results showed a 98.5% reduction in PV energy curtailment and a 57% reduction in the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) from 0.808 USD/kWh to 0.350 USD/kWh when the electric two-wheeler and portable storage loads were introduced. Such reductions are important enablers of financial viability and sustainability of microgrids. It is possible to avoid emissions of up to 73.27 tons of CO2/year with the proposed e-bikes, and an average of 160 customers could be served annually as off-microgrid consumers without requiring an investment in additional distribution infrastructure. Annual revenue could be increased by 135% by incorporating the additional loads. Sensitivity analyses were conducted by varying component costs, the battery lifetime, the interest rate, and the priority weighting of the additional loads. The battery costs were found to be a major contributor to lifecycle costs (LCC) and also have a big impact on the LCOE. The interest rate significantly affects the LCC as well.

Evaluating the impact of ambient temperature on energy consumption rate of electric two-wheeler using real-world driving data

Electric two-wheelers are gaining popularity due to environmental benefits, extensive operating temperature, and low running costs. However, various environmental factors significantly affect their energy consumption rate and overall performance, with ambient temperature being the critical one. This study investigates the impact of ambient temperature on energy consumption rate and performance of electric two-wheelers by utilizing real-world driving data. An experimental setup consists of drive cycle source, speed control unit, motor control unit, battery pack, and motor with varying ambient temperatures ranging from 15 °C to 40 °C. The experimental setup utilized various sensors to collect parameters such as speed, temperature, current, voltage, state of charge, state of health, and driving range. The result shows that the optimal operating temperature for electric two-wheelers is between 20 °C and 30 °C, where energy efficiency and driving range are maximized. At 15 °C, the driving range decreases to 112.41 km, approximately 2 % lower than at moderate ambient temperature, while at 40 °C, the driving range increases by 2 %, reaching 114.68 km. The study also reveals that an extreme ambient temperature reduces the battery's useable capacity, negatively impacting power output and driving range. Additionally, the battery pack's cell temperature rises by 2.2 °C above the ambient temperature in both low and high conditions.

Accelerators and hurdles, and their mediating effects on electric vehicle adoption

The sale of electric vehicles (EVs) in India was only 1.32% of all vehicle sales for FY 21–22. Through this study, the authors sought to contribute to the nascent field of research regarding the constructs influencing this low adoption. The study explores the existence of ‘early adopters’ among Indian consumers and investigates the direct and indirect impact of environmentalism on EV purchase propensity. The causal factors of the variation in the market shares of electric two-wheelers and electric cars in India's EV sales are addressed by estimating two Structural Equation Models encompassing latent variables and socio-demographics influencing their uptake. Technological Affinity emerged as the prime motivator and Concerns about Charging and Battery as the key hindrance to electric car purchase propensity. Environmental Consciousness positively affects both electric two-wheelers and electric car purchase propensities indirectly through Awareness about EVs & Green Policies, which itself demonstrates a positive influence in both cases. The results suggest that in India marketing electric cars as technologically superior cars rather than eco-friendly cars would be more effective. Concerns about Charging and Battery remained insignificant in the case of electric two-wheelers, lending an explanation to their greater market share despite inadequate infrastructure.

Impact of driving timing and road types on the operating regions of electric two-wheeler powertrain components under indian road conditions

Among the different classes of electric vehicles (EVs), electric two-wheelers (E2Ws) are securing more enticement towards the commutator for regular usage due to their higher suitability in the heterogeneous traffic conditions of India. However, the driving range of the E2Ws is the major concern in increasing its penetration rate in road transportation. To eradicate the range anxiety of commutators by redesigning the current E2 W powertrain configuration, this study strives to insights into the operational limits of powertrain elements such as the battery and motor in E2 W under multiple operational circumstances such as driving style, pavement, and ambient conditions. Regarding this, the E2 W with data acquisition system (DAC) connected with an onboard diagnosis (OBD) port is utilized to acquire the data related to powertrain components and vehicles for four driving trips (trips 1–4) under three major road segments (Rural, expressway, and urban) of India. The operating and computed performance metrics, comprising battery voltage and current, state-of-charge (SOC), energy consumption, motor current, speed, efficiency, and so on, are then compared throughout driving trips and road segments. The mean velocity of E2 W for trips 1 to 4 is 31.91, 33.68, 39.03, and 35.58 km/h, respectively. The results disclosed that total energy consumption and energy consumption per km. are higher during trip 3 due to higher average vehicle speed. Also, it has a higher depth-of-discharge (DOD) of 83.91 % than other driving trips. Further, a higher rate of SOC drop, energy consumption and battery temperature rise are found at highway road segments.

Petrol Pumps to Power Plugs: Is the Surge in Electric Two-Wheeler Adoption in Kathmandu Due to Unstable Petroleum Prices?

Since the dawn of the 21st century, the awareness towards environmental concern and sustainability slowly began to rise and the “Electric Wave” truly encompassed the world with electric automobiles. Nepal was no exception to this global electric wave. This research explores a key determinant behind this transition, the influence of fluctuating petroleum price. Using secondary data obtained from registrations of electric and petroleum two-wheelers at the Transport Management Office in Kathmandu, under the Ministry of Labor, Employment, and Transport as well as historical petrol prices over the past 4 years from 2019 to 2023, this research seeks to offer valuable insights into the connection between petrol prices and the adoption of electric vehicles in Kathmandu, Nepal. Using SPSS software, a linear regression analysis was conducted and it revealed that while petroleum prices played a role, they were not the sole determinant affecting adoption. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on sustainable transportation choices and their drivers. It provides valuable insights for policymakers, consumers, and industry stakeholders, as it underscores the influence of fuel prices on consumer choices and the potential for electric two-wheelers to become a viable alternative in the context of Kathmandu’s urban transport.

Exploring Outcome-driven Innovation for the Responsible Design of Electric Two-wheelers

Amidst a technology push for electric mobility, the societal implementation of new e-mobility innovations is multi-layered and warrants a user-centered view. This study explores how the application of the outcome-driven innovation method (ODI) can be extended to e-mobility and inform a more responsible design of electric two-wheeler product and service development. By means of discovering electric two-wheelers’ possible weak spots and potentials using outcome-driven innovation with citizens, their unmet requirements can be better addressed. The results suggest several innovation potentials which could better facilitate users in getting certain jobs done, such as developing a more lightweight vehicle design. Additionally, the diverse needs of users can be transformed into real customer benefits through the subsequent integration of additional vehicle functionalities, such as complementing human machine interfaces or wearables. By employing outcome-driven innovation as a deliberative and inclusive means of creating value and by being receptive to citizen feedback, ODI has the potential to make a meaningful stride in enhancing the ‘responsible’ nature of innovation.

Scalable Innovative Factors for Shaping Consumer Intentions on Electric Two-Wheelers Adoptions

Electric two-wheelers (ETWs) have emerged as a dominant choice over traditional counterparts in global consumer markets, prompting a shift in consumer behaviour. While existing research has delved into the adoption of ETWs, there remains a notable gap in understanding the intricate factors driving consumer adoption, particularly their inclination toward innovation. This study investigates the landscape of ETWs in India, focusing on facilitating conditions, pricing dynamics, personal innovativeness, and behavioral intentions. Utilizing the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework, 220 Indian ETW users were surveyed to elucidate the interplay between facilitating conditions, price, and behavioral intentions, mediated by personal innovativeness. The findings underscore the significant impact of facilitating conditions and price on behavioral intentions, with personal innovativeness serving as a pivotal mediator in this relationship. Moreover, this study underscores the importance for ETW businesses to prioritize user-friendly designs, ensuring a seamless and enjoyable experience for consumers. Furthermore, targeting highly innovative consumers emerges as a strategic imperative for businesses in devising effective marketing strategies. By shedding light on facilitating conditions, price dynamics, personal innovation, and behavioral intentions, this study contributes valuable insights to the existing literature. In terms of environmental sustainability, the scalability of electric twowheelers contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating air pollution in urban areas. As more individuals switch from gasoline-powered vehicles to electric two-wheelers, the collective impact on reducing carbon emissions and improving air quality becomes increasingly significant, especially in densely populated regions where transportation-related pollution is a major concern. Additionally, it offers a nuanced understanding of the mediating role of personal innovation in the context of ETWs, thereby informing future research and strategic initiatives in the field of electric mobility.

Navigating the Evolution: Factors Influencing the Adoption of Electric Two-Wheelers in India’s Sustainable Transport Landscape

Abstract Data indicates that two-wheelers (TW) make up most of all vehicle registrations in India. India’s Electric Two Wheelers (E-TW) market landscape has undergone notable evolution over time, shaped by technological advancements, favourable government policies, escalating fuel costs, and consumers’ increasingly positive reception of electric vehicles. This study aims to delve into the determinants influencing the inclination of Indian customers towards purchasing electric two-wheelers. While previous research has predominantly focused on consumer perspectives in European nations, China, and specific urban areas, the context in India is distinct. As one of the leading contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and with transportation playing a growing role in the national carbon footprint, understanding the potential for broader adoption of electric vehicles among Indian consumers becomes paramount. Employing a survey instrument of 199 respondents, this research gathers data from Indian consumers to assess their attitudes toward electric two-wheelers. The collected data undergoes scrutiny through descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and logistic regression for comprehensive analysis. The results of the exploratory factor analysis revealed that ‘Technical factors and Infrastructure’, ‘Environmental Benefits and Government Incentives, ‘Brand and Attaining Top Speed’ are four distinct variables affecting electric vehicle purchase decisions and out of the four variables, ‘Brand and Attaining Top Speed’ doesn’t influence adoption. The study will help different public and private organisations effectively position and promote E-TWs in India.

Modeling and performance analysis of an electric two-wheeler on various driving cycles and validation using a performance real-time target machine

Compared with conventional two-wheelers, electric two-wheelers are gaining popularity owing to their potential to reduce emissions, their dependency on fossil fuels, and their enhanced economic benefits. However, the electric two-wheelers face key challenges such as inconsistent performance and driving range due to varying driving conditions. This study overcomes this challenge by developing a comprehensive system to investigate and predict the behavior of electric two-wheelers under various vehicle and battery parameters, driving conditions, and ambient conditions. The developed system, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, includes five subsections (the driving cycle, motor controller unit, electric motor, battery pack, and vehicle model) and evaluates the state of health, cell temperature, energy consumption, driving range, and state of charge. To validate the model, a simulation was conducted using a Speedgoat performance real-time target machine. An extensive evaluation is executed to validate the accuracy of the developed system against the real-time performance of an electric two-wheeler. For both simulated and standard driving cycles, the model offers an error of less than 1 %. The results of the analysis show that maintaining a mean speed between 18 km/h and 35 km/h results in the least energy consumption, a higher driving range, and a lower cell temperature. In addition, the research results show that driving aggressively consumes more energy. The results of this research indicate an innovative contribution toward the recognition and selection of appropriate electric two-wheelers.

Battery Thermal Management System in Electric Two-Wheelers

This work documents the design of a battery thermal management system for an electric vehicle in which a liquid cooling system was designed for a 24V Li-ion battery pack. Then, a thermal simulation was performed by using one-dimensional heat transfer modelling using Solidworks. This model also consists of the design of a heater, pump and evaporator to determine the total energy consumption of BTMS. The results indicate that the battery temperature is maintained between 20-30 °???? for various driving profiles with a maximum energy consumption of 0.3%.This work documents the design of a battery thermal management system for an electric vehicle in which a liquid cooling system was designed for a 24V Li-ion battery pack. Then, a thermal simulation was performed by using one-dimensional heat transfer modelling using Solidworks. This model also consists of the design of a heater, pump and evaporator to determine the total energy consumption of BTMS. The results indicate that the battery temperature is maintained between 20-30 °???? for various driving profiles with a maximum energy consumption of 0.3%.

Effect of riding postures on kinematic responses and head injuries of ETW child passengers

Electric two-wheelers (ETWs) are extensively used for the transportation of vulnerable child passengers; however, diverse riding postures adopted by children may engender potential injury risks in the event of a collision. The objective of this study was to investigate the kinematics and head injuries of child passengers with different riding postures in ‘ETW-sedan’ collisional accidents. Typical riding postures were classified and different collision scenarios were designed using the orthogonal matrix analysis method. Multibody models of humans and vehicles were developed and validated using empirical accident data. The effects of riding postures of child passengers on head injury mechanisms and kinematics were studied. The result showed that it was the most dangerous posture when the child sat in the back seat and had a reverse facial orientation with the rider, due to the highest incidence of fatal head injury. A parametric study was further conducted on the effect of different impact velocities, impact angles, and offset distances. It was found that the velocity of the sedan was the most influencing factor, and severe damage can occur when the impact angle was ranging from 30 to 90°. The study could provide guidance for the safety protection of child passengers on ETWs.

Thermal management of Li-ion battery pack using potting material and air cooling for electric two-wheelers

The increasing popularity of electric two-wheelers has underscored the need for efficient thermal management of Li-ion battery packs, as it is essential for ensuring their optimal performance and safety. This paper presents a detailed study on the application of potting material in combination with air cooling for thermal management in a 3s3p NMC 21700 Li-ion battery pack. The study involved analysing the behaviour of the battery pack through physical testing and validating the findings using simulation with Ansys Fluent 2023 R1 software. The simulation results were then leveraged to predict the battery pack's performance when various potting materials were used. Specifically, the research investigated the impact of thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density on the thermal stability of the battery pack. The outcomes of this study clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of using potting material in conjunction with air cooling to maintain the Li-ion battery pack within the desired temperature range, which is crucial for its reliable operation.In summary, this paper underscores the paramount importance of thermal management in Li-ion battery packs for electric two-wheelers. It offers a comprehensive examination of the combined use of potting material and air cooling, revealing its effectiveness in optimizing battery pack performance and ensuring safety. This research contributes to ongoing efforts aimed at enhancing the performance and safety of Li-ion battery packs in the context of electric two-wheelers.

Enhancement of rider comfort by magnetorheological elastomer based damping treatment at strategic locations of an electric two wheeler

The vibrations generated in the two-wheeled vehicles like motorcycles due to road irregularities such as cracks, potholes, and bumps on the road cause discomfort for the rider as well as the pillion. These vibrations are reported to cause lower back pains, musculoskeletal effects, fatigue, and long-term health issues. Particularly, electric two-wheelers are more susceptible to these vibrations caused by the road and need attention. This paper presents an innovative technique for the reduction of vibrations at prominent locations in the electric two-wheeler to improve the rider’s comfort. All measured accelerations are about vertical direction (along z-axis as per ISO 2631-1 standard). Passive and Semi-active damping treatments namely, Room temperature vulcanizing Silicone rubber and Magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) were applied on the test vehicle at strategic locations of vibration. Both were compared for their effectiveness in reducing the vibrations. Results showed that MRE based damping technique proved better vibration isolation at the strategic locations. The weighted root mean square acceleration as well as vibration dose values were found to decrease with the help of damping treatments thus improving the rider’s overall comfort level.

Synergistic thermal management of lithium-ion batteries in electric two-wheelers: Critical analysis and ranking of multifaceted strategies and numerical validation

The paradigm shift from conventional to electric propulsion has become one of the pivotal foci of research areas. In the electric vehicle domain which encompasses a range of vehicles from two-wheelers to multi-wheelers, the battery thermal management system and its design variations are receiving the utmost attention. This article explores an array of distinct cooling strategies viz. evaporative, refrigeration assisted, mist, vapour chamber, thermoelectric and MEMS membrane cooling for lithium-ion batteries with their specifications, prominent attributes, advantages, limitations and thermal mitigating measures with potential future possibilities for electric two-wheelers. Grey relational analysis (GRA) is adopted to rank the cooling schemes disclosed that mist cooling is the most optimal for electric two-wheelers and this recommendation is substantiated with a numerical approach. The numerical results unveiled that the multi-strategical approach of mist cooling and forced convection attenuated the peak cell temperature by 13% and 24% when compared to stand-alone mist cooling and the system without external cooling assistance. This stands as evidence for the increased effectiveness of multi-strategical approaches. The article would help in creating the most practical combinational cooling solutions to lessen the danger of a thermal runaway with lithium-ion batteries, in particular, implemented in electric two-wheelers.

Multifaceted multi-criteria decision making framework to prioritise the electric two-wheelers based on standard and regional driving cycles

The primary objective of the carried-out research work is to utilise the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques to rank the top-selling electric two-wheeler (E2W) models based on the different performance features stated by original equipment manufacturers and estimated through standard and regional driving cycle (DC) analysis. First and foremost, the vehicle structural, powertrain, performance features, and cost component-related data of eight top-selling E2W models (M1–M8) are gathered from the official websites of OEMs and local dealers. Then, performance features like energy consumption per km (EC/km), driving range (DR), well-to-wheel (WTW) CO2 emission, total cost of ownership (TCO), and total cost of ownership per km (TCO/km) are estimated under standard and regional DCs through the developed energy consumption and TCO models. Further, the ten different MCDM tools are utilised for prioritising the E2W models under each DC with the attributes’ weights estimated from the entropy methods. To enhance the trustworthiness of ranking results, sensitivity analysis is done using six distinct combinations of attribute weights. Moreover, the M7 E2W is identified as the best E2W by utilising Borda Count to integrate all the ranking results. Overall, this study provides an in-depth understanding for users about how to select E2W with minimal effort.

A Fuzzy Logic Approach for Efficient Control of BLDC Motors for Low-Cost Electric Two-Wheelers

A Fuzzy Logic Approach for Efficient Control of BLDC Motors for Low-Cost Electric Two-Wheelers

Investigating consumers’ adoption of electric vehicles: a perceived value-based perspective

PurposeThe current work aims to understand the consumers’ adoption of electric vehicles (two-wheelers) from their value perspective by utilizing the value-based adoption model.Design/methodology/approachThe study considered data from 302 potential electric two-wheeler customers and tested the hypotheses using structural equation modeling.FindingsThe outcomes showed that perceived economic benefits, social image, enjoyable acceleration and enhanced fun and perceived environment (positively) and perceived physical safety risk, perceived cost of ownership and range and charging risk (negatively) influenced the customers’ perceived value linked with electric two-wheeler (ETW) adoption. Only low engine noise emission and infrastructure issues did not affect perceived value.Research limitations/implicationsMost of the respondents considered in the study were less than 35 years old. Hence, the model can be tested for other age groups.Practical implicationsThe study’s outcomes will help ETW marketers, manufacturing companies and governments (state and central) to provide a more convenient environment for electric two-wheelers' adoption and help them curate appropriate strategies.Originality/valueThe current work offers a better understanding of potential customers' ETW adoption by employing a value-based trade-off.

Electric two-wheeler adoption in India – A discrete choice analysis of motivators and barriers affecting the potential electric two-wheeler buyers

An impetus towards the electrification of mobility is crucial for India. However, the adoption rates of electric two-wheelers remain low, and hence, for fruitful penetration of electric two-wheelers in India, this study analyses the factors affecting the adoption behaviour of electric two-wheelers using discrete choice models. This study uses data collected from 1375 potential electric two-wheeler buyers of Bengaluru, India, to study the influence of various vehicle attributes such as purchase price, operating cost, charging time, driving range, charging infrastructure and exhaust emissions on the intention to adopt electric two-wheelers. In addition, the impact of important policies such as free and reserved parking, access to priority lanes and toll tax exemption for electric two-wheeler owners is also analysed and discussed in this study. Apart from the vehicle attributes, this study also studies the effect of socio-demographic variables, travel variables and certain attitudinal latent variables such as environmental enthusiasm, technological enthusiasm, and perceived social image on the electric two-wheeler adoption behaviour. The results reveal purchase price, operating cost and charging time to have a significant negative impact and driving range and density of the charging infrastructure network to have a significant positive impact on the intention to adopt electric two-wheelers.