Measurement Of Elastic Modulus Research Articles

Quantitative Deformability Cytometry: Rapid, Calibrated Measurements of Cell Mechanical Properties

Advances in methods that determine cell mechanical phenotype, or mechanotype, have demonstrated the utility of biophysical markers in clinical and research applications ranging from cancer diagnosis to stem cell enrichment. Here, we introduce quantitative deformability cytometry (q-DC), a method for rapid, calibrated, single-cell mechanotyping. We track changes in cell shape as cells deform into microfluidic constrictions, and we calibrate the mechanical stresses using gel beads. We observe that time-dependent strain follows power-law rheology, enabling single-cell measurements of apparent elastic modulus, Ea, and power-law exponent, β. To validate our method, we mechanotype human promyelocytic leukemia (HL-60) cells and thereby confirm q-DC measurements of Ea = 0.53 ± 0.04 kPa. We also demonstrate that q-DC is sensitive to pharmacological perturbations of the cytoskeleton as well as differences in the mechanotype of human breast cancer cell lines (Ea = 2.1 ± 0.1 and 0.80 ± 0.19 kPa for MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells). To establish an operational framework for q-DC, we investigate the effects of applied stress and cell/pore-size ratio on mechanotype measurements. We show that Ea increases with applied stress, which is consistent with stress stiffening behavior of cells. We also find that Ea increases for larger cell/pore-size ratios, even when the same applied stress is maintained; these results indicate strain stiffening and/or dependence of mechanotype on deformation depth. Taken together, the calibrated measurements enabled by q-DC should advance applications of cell mechanotype in basic research and clinical settings.

Effects of nano-silica on mechanical performance and microstructure of ultra-high performance concrete

Abstract The use of nanoparticles in ultra-high strength concretes can result in a positive effect on mechanical performance of these cementitious materials. This study evaluated mixtures containing 10 and 20 wt% of silica fume, for which the optimum nano-silica content was determined, i.e. the quantity of nano-silica that resulted on the higher gain of strength. The physical characterization of raw materials was done in terms of particle size distribution, density and specific surface area. Chemical and mineralogical compositions of materials were obtained through fluorescence and X-ray diffraction. The mechanical performance was evaluated by compressive strength, flexural strength and dynamic elastic modulus measurements. The microstructural analysis of mixtures containing nano-silica was performed by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning electron microscopy. Obtained results indicate an optimum content of nano-silica of 0.62 wt%, considering compressive and flexural strengths. This performance improvement was directly related to two important microstructural aspects: the packing effect and pozzolanic reaction of nano-silica.

Elastic modulus measurements of vertically aligned multi walled carbon nanotubes carpets by using the nanoindentation technique

Electrical, thermal and mechanical properties of Vertically Aligned Multi Walled Carbon NanoTubes (VA-MWCNT) make them an ideal candidate to replace some of conventional materials in micro and nano-electronic components. Integrating this material in micro components requires a good knowledge of their properties. As the electrical and thermal properties, the MWCNT mechanical properties are difficult to assess. Several techniques have been developed to estimate the CNT Young's modulus and the obtained results cover a large range of scale. In this study, we propose an indirect technique for MWCNT carpet Young's modulus measurements by using the nanoindentation technique. Nanoindentation tests are performed on a metallic film deposited on MWCNT. The measured equivalent reduced modulus takes into account the elastic properties of the metallic thin film and those of the MWCNT substrate. Bec et al. model, introduced in 2006, is used to separate elastic properties, and thus determine the MWCNT reduced Young’s modulus which is estimated between 329 and 352GPa. Knowing the indenter mechanical properties, we estimate the Young’s modulus in the 461 to507GPa range.

Delayed photo-activation and addition of thio-urethane: Impact on polymerization kinetics and stress of dual-cured resin cements

Objective1) to determine the moment during the redox polymerization reaction of dual cure cements at which to photo-activate the material in order to reduce the polymerization stress, and 2) to evaluate possible synergistic effects between adding chain transfer agents and delayed photo-activation. MethodsThe two pastes of an experimental dual-cure material were mixed, and the polymerization kinetics of the redox phase was followed. The moment when the material reached its maximum rate of redox polymerization (MRRP) of cement was determined. The degree of conversion (DC) and maximum rates of polymerization (Rpmax) were assessed for materials where: the photoactivation immediately followed material mixing, at MRRP, 1min before and 1min after MRRP. Thio-urethane (TU) additives were synthesized and added to the cement (20% wt), which was then cured under the same conditions. The polymerization kinetics was evaluated for both cements photo-activated immediately or at MRRP, followed by measurements of polymerization stress, flexural strength (FS) and elastic modulus (EM). Knoop hardness was measured before and after ethanol storage. ResultsPhoto-activating the cement at or after MRRP reduced the Rpmax and the polymerization stress. Addition of TU promoted additional and more significant reduction, while not affecting the Rpmax. Greater hardness loss was observed for cements with TU, but the final hardness was similar for all experimental conditions. Addition of TU slightly reduced the EM and did not affect the FS. ConclusionDelayed photo-activation and addition of TU significantly reduce the polymerization stress of dual-cured cements.

Particle-based characterization of Ottawa sand: Shape, size, mineralogy, and elastic moduli

The success of computational materials science models for cement and concrete, at the micrometer-to-millimeter scale, is based on careful characterization of the two main starting materials – cement and aggregates. Concrete is a complex material, and models based on over-simplified chemical, geometrical, and topological assumptions have limits on the behavior they can realistically simulate. In this paper, a sample of Ottawa sand was carefully characterized, since this material is used in laboratories all around North America as the specified sand for many standard tests, including what is possibly the most highly-used ASTM test of all in the field of cement-based materials, C-109, the mortar cube strength test. Particle shape and size distributions were acquired via a combination of X-ray tomography, spherical harmonic analysis, sieve analysis, microscopy and image analysis, and laser diffraction. Quantitative X-ray diffraction showed that the Ottawa sand used was very pure α−quartz with 1% amorphous content. Elastic moduli information at the particle level was obtained via instrumented nanoindentation. Polarized light microscopy showed that the particles that were indented were single crystals. Results for the Young's modulus, E, of Ottawa sand were E = 110 GPa ± 5 GPa (assumed Poisson's ratio of 0.08), in agreement with other nanoindentation results for Ottawa sand in the literature but more than one standard deviation larger than the results obtained from isotropic averages of the elastic moduli tensor of α−quartz, measured by ultrasonic and Brillouin scattering techniques and averaged in various ways. This kind of disagreement has been seen for other minerals as well as α−quartz, and indicates that nanoindentation measurement of elastic moduli for particulate minerals used in cement and concrete and other applications must be used with some care. This characterization procedure can now be confidently employed for any class of sand or gravel particle that is desired to be used in a three-dimensional mortar or concrete model.

Decoupling the effects of surface topography and material heterogeneity on indentation modulus: A simple numerical linear-elastic model

One complication in interpreting indentation modulus measurements in inhomogeneous structural materials is the coupling between surface topography and material heterogeneity. Typically, the specimen surface is prepared to be as smooth and flat as possible, yet there are always limits to how flat a sample surface will be. Moreover, when a compositional interface is sensed mechanically, via a change in modulus, any non-flat surface topography near the interface is combined with the phase changes to influence the total elastic-modulus measurement. This paper uses a linear elastic finite element model to suggest how to decouple these two phenomena. Three axisymmetric models are presented: (1) convex and concave surfaces with material uniformity, (2) a flat surface with a lateral-graded material interface, and (3) convex and concave surfaces with a laterally-graded material interface. Using the exact Hertzian formulae, the indentation modulus is computed assuming that all the models have flat surfaces, like physical experiments often assume, and are elastically uniform. The results of (1) and (2), which have only a non-flat surface topography or material heterogeneity, are used to interpret (3), which has both. The competition between the contact radius and the distance from the indentation point to the material interface significantly influences the calculated elastic modulus. The flat-surface assumption can yield significant errors when extracting the elastic modulus in solids with pronounced curved surfaces. An empirical relation based upon contact pressure and displacement data is used to accurately extract the true material elastic modulus when both surface curvature and material interface are present.

Dynamical regimes of lipids in additivated liposomes with enhanced elasticity: A field-cycling NMR relaxometry approach

We study the molecular dynamics of lipids in binary large unilamellar liposomes suspended in D2O composed of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) or soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) additivated with different percentiles of sodium deoxycholate (SDC). We use the fast field-cycling proton NMR relaxometry technique over a wide timescale and at diverse temperatures. A model previously validated in different formulations is here employed for the relaxometric analysis of elastic vesicles. A new dynamical regime is observed for the first time in additivated DMPC and additivated/non-additivated SPC liposomes. This surprising feature is discussed in terms of vesicle shape fluctuations, enhanced elasticity and lipid & additive diffusion within the membrane. The continuum elastic theory is revisited for a better understanding of recent experiments and those here presented. We address the point of deformability measurements across rigid permeable barriers versus measurements of the bending elastic modulus in free-standing vesicles.

Finite Element Analysis and Experimental Research on Microcantilever Vibration Performance in AFAM

1Atomic force acoustic microscopy (AFAM ) is a dynamical technique, by which the elasticity of the sample and sub-surface defects can be evaluated at nano-scale. Therefore, it is important to build the relative between contact stiffness and resonant frequency and determine the accuracy of the elastic modulus measurements. This paper analyzes the mechanical behavior of the cantilever of AFAM, the resonance frequency of the cantilever under free state and contacting with sample using finite element method are simulated, and the resonance frequencies are measured for the two states experimentally. From the three-dimensional model results, the resonance frequency of tensional modes also can found. Acoustic amplitude images are obtained using AFAM system, which can not only show the morphology but also mechanical information.

Towards a robust and versatile method for monitoring E‐modulus of concrete since casting: Enhancements and extensions of EMM‐ARM

AbstractIn face of the importance of assessing mechanical properties of cement‐based materials since early ages, as well as the known limitations of existing methods, the EMM‐ARM (Elasticity Modulus Measurement through Ambient Response Method) was initially proposed in 2009. Since its first application, this method has been under constant development and extension to the study of other materials such as stabilized soils or epoxy resins. Extensive use has revealed several limitations on robustness and versatility that are addressed through a set of improvements proposed in this paper. Such improvements attempt to make EMM‐ARM more appropriate for systematic applications both in laboratory and in situ environments. These objectives were achieved through the application of a new test mould material, redesigned support systems, and the development of a new reusable mould. Additionally, the use of a small excitation applied to the beam to decrease the sensitivity of the method to the environmental noise was assessed.

Potential application of electron work function in analyzing fracture toughness of materials

Fracture toughness determines materials’ resistance to fracture, which is measured often using impact or bending tests. However, it is difficult to evaluate fracture toughness of coatings and small samples. In this article, using white irons as sample materials, we explore a possible approach of using electron work function (EWF) as an indicator in evaluating fracture toughness of hard metallic materials. This parameter is promising for being utilized to analyze toughness of protective coatings and small objects as well as bulk materials. Through comparison with results obtained from impact tests and elastic modulus measurement, effectiveness of this EWF approach is demonstrated.

Determination of elastic modulus of claystone: Nano-/micro-indentation and meso-compression tests used to investigate impact of alkaline fluid propagation over 18 years

Micro-mechanical properties of a claystone were tested after undergoing alkaline perturbation on site (Tournemire, CD borehole) for 18 years. In a saturated context and outside the excavation disturbed zone (EDZ), the claystone exhibits a 11.6-mm black rim at the cement/paste interface, which shows a different mechanical behaviour from the rest of the claystone. Three sets of measurements of elastic modulus were performed using: (i) nano-indentation tests with a constant indentation depth of 2 μm, (ii) micro-indentation tests with a constant indentation depth of 20 μm, and (iii) meso-compression tests with a constant displacement of 200 μm. The increase of the modulus of deformability in the black rim is between 15 GPa and 20 GPa according to the scale. Moreover, an overall decrease of the modulus of deformability from the smallest to the largest scale is observed in each zone. In view of the mineralogy and petrographic observations, higher values of modulus of deformability in the black rim are related to carbonate content and its distribution. Precipitation of cementitious carbonates as inclusions and very thin partings leads to hardening of the claystone.

Tuning the Extent and Depth of Penetration of Flexible Liposomes in Human Skin.

In this work we made an attempt to assess the effect of drug-induced changes of flexibility on the penetration of deformable vesicles into the human skin. Eight cationic liposomes with different degrees of flexibility were obtained by entrapping unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin, and nadroparin. The deformability was studied by a novel, facile, and reliable extrusion assay appositely developed and validated by means of quantitative nanoscale mechanical AFM measurements of vesicle elastic modulus (log10(YM)). The proposed extrusion assay, determining the forces involved in vesicles deformation, resulted very sensitive to evidence of minimal changes in bilayer rigidity (σ) and vesicle deformation (K). The drug loading caused a reduction of liposome flexibility with respect to the reference plain liposomes and in accordance to the heparin type, drug to cationic lipid (DOTAP) ratio, and drug distribution within the vesicles. Interestingly, the σ and log10(YM) values perfectly correlated (R2 = 0.935), demonstrating the reliability of the deformability data obtained with both approaches. The combination of TEM and LC-MS/MS spectrometry allowed the pattern of the penetration of the entire vesicles into the skin to be followed. In all cases, intact liposomes in the epidermis layers were observed and a relationship between the depth of penetration and the liposome flexibility was found, supporting the hypothesis of the whole vesicle penetration mechanism. Moreover, the results of the extent (R24) of vesicle penetration in the human skin samples showed a direct relation to the flexibility values (σ1 = 0.65 ± 0.10 MPa → R24 = 3.33 ± 0.02 μg/mg; σ2 = 0.95 ± 0.04 MPa → R24 = 1.18 ± 0.26 μg/mg; σ3 = 1.89 ± 0.30 MPa → R24 = 0.53 ± 0.33 μg/mg).

Evaluation of nanohydroxyapaptite (nano-HA) coated epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) cross-linked collagen membranes

Collagen is the main component of extracellular matrix (ECM) with desirable biological activities and low antigenicity. Collagen materials have been widely utilized in guided bone regeneration (GBR) surgery due to its abilities to maintain space for hard tissue growth. However, pure collagen lacks optimal mechanical properties. In our previous study, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) cross-linked collagen membranes, with better biological activities and enhanced mechanical properties, may promote osteoblast proliferation, but their effect on osteoblast differentiation is not very significant. Nanohydroxyapatite (nano-HA) is the main component of mineral bone, which possesses exceptional bioactivity properties including good biocompatibility, high osteoconductivity and osteoinductivity, non-immunogenicity and non-inflammatory behavior. Herein, by analyzing the physical and chemical properties as well as the effects on promoting bone regeneration, we have attempted to present a novel EGCG-modified collagen membrane with nano-HA coating, and have found evidence that the novel collagen membrane may promote bone regeneration with a better surface morphology, without destroying collagen backbone. To evaluate the surface morphologies, chemical and mechanical properties of pure collagen membranes, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) cross-linked collagen membranes, nano-HA coated collagen membranes, nano-HA coated EGCG-collagen membranes, (ii) to evaluate the bone regeneration promoted by theses membranes. In the present study, collagen membranes were divided into 4 groups: (1) untreated collagen membranes (2) EGCG cross-linked collagen membranes (3) nano-HA modified collagen membranes (4) nano-HA modified EGCG-collagen membranes. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to evaluate surface morphologies and chemical properties, respectively. Mechanical properties were determined by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and elastic modulus (EM) measurements. Then in 12 rats, 4 types of membranes were randomly applied to cover the rat calvarial defects. The animals were sacrificed at 8weeks. Histologic analyses were performed using Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining and Masson's Trichrome stains. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey's multiple comparison tests was applied. HA nanoparticles were fairly well distributed nanoparticles among the collagen fibers on the nano-HA-modified EGCG-collagen membranes, with smoother surface. Moreover, collagen membranes with modifications all maintained their collagen backbone and the mechanical properties were enhanced by EGCG and nano-HA treatments. In addition, EGCG cross-linked collagen membranes with nano-HA coatings promoted bone regeneration. Nano-HA modified EGCG-collagen membranes can be utilized as a barrier membrane to enhance the bone regeneration in GBR surgeries.

Hydratable Alumina-Bonded Suspensions: Evolution of Microstructure and Physical Properties During First Heating

Hydratable alumina (HA) is a calcium-free and high-refractoriness binder for alumina-based suspensions. Although recent studies have improved its dispersion, mixing and drying behaviours, a drawback related to its loss of strength between 250 and 900°C remains unexplored. Pores generated after decomposition of HA curing products are usually an explanation for the effect; however, no experimental result has supported this hypothesis so far. This study investigated the effects of thermal treatment (120–1500°C) upon the microstructure and physical properties of calcined alumina suspensions containing different amounts of HA (10–40 vol.-%). Porosity, compression strength and flexural elastic modulus measurements, thermal linear variation and thermogravimetric analysis were compared with scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction results. The average matrix particle size and amount of HA in the formulation play major roles in the types of curing products that are formed. The strength reduction observed during first heating was not directly associated with the increase in porosity.

Comparative study on the corrosion and mechanical properties of nano-composite coatings incorporated with TiO 2 nano-particles, TiO 2 nano-tubes, and ZnO nano-flowers

Abstract TiO2 nano-particles (NP-TiO2), TiO2 nano-tubes (NT-TiO2) and novel nano-composite TiO2 nano-tubes and ZnO nano-flowers (NT-TiO2 + NF-ZnO) were prepared by sol-gel and modified hydrothermal methods, respectively. These pigments were characterized by XRD, HRTEM, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. The effects of these pigments on the mechanical and anticorrosion performance of alkyd coating were evaluated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), water permeability, elastic modulus and hardness measurements. EIS measurements showed that the alkyd resin resistance and charge transfer resistance increased via the incorporation of nano-pigments into neat coatings. The order of anticorrosion performance of the three nano-pigments was as follows: NT-TiO2 + NF-ZnO ˃ NT-TiO2 ˃ NP-TiO2.

Wear characteristics and inhibition of enamel demineralization by resin-based coating materials.

In this study, wear and inhibition of enamel demineralization by resin-based coating materials were investigated. Seven commercially available coating materials, with and without fillers, were used. A mechanical wear test was performed, and the specimens were then examined with a scanning electron microscope. Hardness and elastic modulus measurements for each material were obtained by nanoindentation testing. Thin layers of each material were applied on human enamel surfaces, which were subjected to alternating immersion in demineralizing and remineralizing solutions. The inhibition ability of enamel demineralization adjacent to the coating was estimated with depth-dependent mechanical properties using the nanoindentation test. The non-filled coating material showed significantly lower hardness, lower elastic modulus, and higher weight loss. There were no significant differences in weight loss among the six filled coating materials. After the alternating immersion protocol, the enamel specimens having application of coating materials with ion-releasing ability were harder than those in the other groups in some locations 1-11 μm from the enamel surface and within 300 μm from the edge of the coating materials. In conclusion, clinical use of the resin-based coating materials with ion-releasing ability may prevent demineralization of exposed enamel adjacent to the coating during treatment.

Surface integrity of Mg-based nanocomposite produced by Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the influence of jet traverse speed on the surface integrity of 0.66 wt% Al2O3 nanoparticle reinforced metal matrix composite (MMC) generated by Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM). Surface morphology, surface topography, and surface roughness (SR) of the AWJ surface were analyzed. The machined surfaces of the nanocomposites were examined by laser confocal microscope and field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). Microhardness and elasticity modulus measurement by nanoindentation testing were also performed across thickness of the samples to see depth of the zone, affected by AWJ cutting. The result reveals that extent of grooving by abrasive particle and irregularity in AWJ machined surface increases as the traverse speed increased. Similarly, the rise in value of surface roughness parameters with traverse speed was also seen. In addition, nanoindentation testing represents the lower hardness and elastic modulus due to softening occurs in AWJ surface.

The diagnostic performance of shear wave speed (SWS) imaging for thyroid nodules with elasticity modulus and SWS measurement.

To evaluate the diagnostic performance of a new technique of shear wave speed (SWS) imaging for the diagnosis of thyroid nodule with elasticity modulus and SWS measurement. 322 thyroid nodules in 322 patients (216 benign nodules, 106 malignant nodules) were included in this study. All the nodules received conventional ultrasound (US) and SWS imaging (Aplio500, Toshiba Medical Systems, Japan) before fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and/or surgery. The values of E-max and E-mean with elastic modulus (61.27 ± 36.31 kPa and 31.89 ± 19.11 kPa) or SWS (4.45 ± 1.49 m/s and 3.26 ± 2.71 m/s) in malignant nodules were significantly higher than those in benign lesions (29.18 ± 18.62 kPa and 15.85 ± 6.96 kPa, or 2.98 ± 0.85 m/s and 2.19 ± 0.42 m/s, all P < 0.001). No significant differences in area under the curve (AUC) between the SWS imaging parameters were found (all P > 0.05). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, E-max (m/s) with SWS was identified to be the strongest independent predictor for malignant nodules (odds ratio [OR] = 16.760), followed by poorly-defined margin (OR = 7.792), taller-than-wide shape (OR = 3.160), micro-calcification (OR = 2.422), and E-max (kPa) with elastic modulus (OR = 0.914). The AUC was 0.813 for E-max with SWS (m/s) and 0.796 for E-max with elastic modulus (kPa). With cut-off SWS value of 3.52 m/s in E-max, sensitivity of 69.8%, specificity of 81.5%, and accuracy of 77.6% were achieved. SWS imaging is a valuable tool in predicting thyroid malignancy. E-max with SWS measurement is the strongest independent predictor for thyroid malignancy.

The reliability of shear elastic modulus measurement of the ankle plantar flexion muscles is higher at dorsiflexed position of the ankle

BackgroundExcessive stiffness of lower limb muscles is associated with sports injuries. Therefore, the identification of a reliable measurement of the shear elastic modulus of various ankle plantar flexion muscles is required to evaluate lower leg sports injuries. This study investigated the reliable measurement of the shear elastic modulus of the ankle plantar flexion muscles at different ankle positions.MethodsTwenty-three healthy young men (25.3 ± 3.6 years, 172.9 ± 5.0 cm, 67.2 ± 7.2 kg) participated in this study. The shear elastic moduli of the ankle plantar flexion muscles including the lateral gastrocnemius, medial gastrocnemius, soleus, peroneus longus, peroneus brevis, flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus and tibialis posterior were measured using ultrasonic shear wave elastography at 0, 10 and 20° dorsiflexion.ResultsThe reliability of the shear elastic modulus measurements for each ankle position was assessed. The results showed that the interday reliability of the measurements differed between ankle positions and that the reliability of the shear elastic modulus measurements at 20° dorsiflexion was higher than that at 10° or 0°.ConclusionOur results suggest that measurements at 20° dorsiflexion may provide a more reliable measurement of the shear elastic modulus of ankle plantar flexion muscles.

Non-destructive acoustic measurement of elastic modulus of plant leaves

It is generally considered that plant leaves have appropriate bending stiffness for the purpose of effective photosynthesis. However, effect of lateral veins on the bending stiffness of leaves are not obvious since lateral veins don't change cross-sectional shape of leaves in contrast of a central vein. In this study, in-plane Young's moduli parallel and perpendicular to lateral veins (E∥ and E⊥) of leaves of Epipremnum aureum were determined by a combination of non-destructive acoustic resonance measurements and numerical analyses using finite element method. Leaves were clamped by metal plates which have oval windows and oscillated by a speaker through the windows. The bending vibrations of the leaves were measured using a laser displacement sensor and resonant frequencies were obtained using fast Fourier transform. In-plane Young's moduli parallel and perpendicular to lateral veins were determined from measured resonance frequencies, dimensions, and mass densities using finite element analyses. The in-plane elastic anisotropies E∥/E⊥ obtained from all the measurement areas suggested that lateral veins increase the bending stiffness of leaf laminas of Epipremnum aureum. It was also suggested that effects of primary lateral veins on in-plane Young's moduli were larger than those of secondary lateral veins.