ABSTRACT In developing countries, governments are rightly concerned with generating enough jobs. However, focusing solely on the quantity delivers a partial picture, as socioeconomic sustainability and productivity also depend on job quality. This paper shows that although Egypt has experienced reasonable economic growth between 1998 and 2018, labour force participation declined and job quality appears to have worsened. Based on several Latin American case studies, this paper uses the Alkire/Foster method to measure poor-quality employment among wage-earners in Egypt. Using cross-sectional data from the Egyptian Labour Market Panel Survey (ELMPS), this paper contributes by (1) showing that this methodology can be applied to a lower-income country; (2) quantifying the proportion of deprived wage-earners and the clustering of their deprivations; (3) discussing that the 2003 labour reform likely had adverse effects on poor-quality of employment. The methodology, results and findings are relevant to other developing countries around the world.

Purpose This study examines the effect of digital skills on wages and employment in Egypt, with particular focus on gender differences. Design/methodology/approach The study uses the 2023 wave of the Egyptian Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS). Our empirical methodology uses several econometric techniques, including Mincer equations, quantile regressions, Heckman and Blau et al. (2024) selection models. We also do robustness checks to address endogeneity concerns. Findings This paper has three main findings: (1) Digital skills improve labor market outcomes in Egypt, with positive effects on wages and employment probability for workers. (2) Women get higher returns from digital skills than men. In wage equations, the digital skills premium for women is approximately 1.5 times greater compared to men. This effect is even more important for women in employment probability models. (3) These gender differences occur through several mechanisms. Conspicuously, digital skills help women access formal employment and improve their chances in the public sector. It also enhances their access to high-skill occupations. Originality/value This study provides novel evidence on the wage and employment returns to digital skills by gender in a developing economy characterized by occupational segregation and underrepresentation of women.

This paper makes the first empirical contribution to investigating the relationship between migration status and remittance behavior among Egyptian migrants. Using new individual-level data from the 2023 wave of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey and a probit regression, this paper estimates the impact of having legal entry to and work authorization in the host country on the likelihood of sending remittances. Additionally, the paper utilizes a supervised machine learning approach, the Random Forest algorithm, to identify the most influential variables in predicting remittance behavior. The analysis finds that legal entry into a host country plays a significant role in remittance behavior, with an increase in remittance by 16 percentage points compared to those with no legal entry. However, the Random Forest analysis suggests that being a married woman is the most influential factor associated with a higher likelihood of remitting.

ABSTRACT Using nationally representative data from the 2023 Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS), this paper describes education, fertility, labor market, and multi-dimensional agency outcomes for 13,280 currently married women aged 15–55, comparing those who married at or before age 18 with those who married later. Early marriage is common (29.2% of married women), particularly in rural and lower-wealth households. Relative to later-married women, early-married women more often have low schooling (30.4% illiterate vs. 16.1%) and much lower university attainment (1.9% vs. 24.8%). They report higher numbers of live births on average (3.2 vs. 2.8) and a greater prevalence of consanguineous unions (27% vs. 19%). Their labor force participation is around six percentage points lower and more concentrated in informal and unpaid work. Across agency domains, early-married women exhibit modest but patterned disadvantages in household decision-making, mobility, gender-egalitarian attitudes, and financial control, alongside higher justification of intimate partner violence and slightly lower self-efficacy. Agency levels rise with education for all women, yet early-married women remain less advantaged at each schooling level. Overall, the findings document systematic differences between early- and later-married women across human capital, economic engagement, and agency, underscoring the relevance of policies that expand schooling, decent work, and empowerment opportunities for girls and young women in Egypt.

Abstract This study examines the impact of technology usage on the gender wage gap in Egypt, analyzing wage disparities across three groups: technology professionals (ICT sector), technology users (non-ICT jobs utilizing digital tools), and nonusers (no technology engagement). Using the 2023 Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS), we estimate gender-disaggregated wage equations via Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Instrumental Variables Two-Stage Least Squares (IV-2SLS) to address endogeneity, and apply a two-step Heckman selection model to correct for employment selection bias. The Neuman–Oaxaca decomposition distinguishes explained and unexplained components of the gender wage gap. Results reveal that technology professionals exhibit a negligible gender wage gap, though unobserved factors, such as longer working hours, disproportionately favor men. Technology users show a modest gap driven by undervaluation of women’s skills and occupational segregation, while nonusers face a substantial wage gap (approximately 24 %) largely due to discrimination and structural barriers. These findings suggest that engagement with technology enhances women’s earning potential, yet persistent gender-based disparities remain outside technology-intensive roles. Policies promoting equitable access to digital skills, fair pay practices, and occupational integration are recommended to reduce wage inequalities.

Prevalent in the Global South, child marriage powerfully shapes women's work and family lives. Analyzing data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey, we examine how child marriage influences the work-family life courses of Egyptian women between ages 6 and 30, to advance life course research in two crucial aspects. First, using multichannel sequence analysis, we identified six distinct work-family trajectories of Egyptian women who married as children and compared these with women who married as adults. Girl brides' work-family trajectories are mostly marked by early fertility and minimal labor force participation, particularly in the public sector. While some clusters combine private-sector work with early, frequent childbearing, most remain out of the labor force despite their education. In contrast, women who married as adults exhibit delayed fertility and greater participation in stable public-sector employment, suggesting that the timing of marriage and childbirth shapes sector-specific work opportunities. Second, we use a counterfactual approach to test key mechanisms-education (human capital) and childbirth timing (gender role)-through which child marriage is expected to shape women's work-family trajectories. While improved education increases girl brides' public-sector employment, its impact on family trajectories is minimal. Delayed fertility impacts women's family but not work trajectories. Our findings reflect critically on mainstream theories of, and interventions in, work-family life courses in the event of child marriage. They highlight the need to scrutinize the transition into "accelerated adulthood" as a distinctive feature of young adult life courses in the Global South, particularly among those affected by child marriage.

هدفت الدراسة إلى تسليط الضوء على دور الإعاقة في عدم المساواة في الفرص التعليمية في التعليم قبل الجامعي في مصر: الالتحاق بالتعليم بين الأطفال في العمر 7-17 سنة وإتمام المرحلة الثانوية بين الأفراد في العمر 21-29 سنة، وتقدير مستوى مساهمة الإعاقة وكذلك العوامل المختلفة في عدم المساواة في تلك الفرص التعليمية. تم ذلك باستخدام مؤشر الفرص البشرية وتحليل شابلي وبالاعتماد على بيانات المسح التتبعي لسوق العمل المصري 2018. وقد تم قياس الإعاقة في هذا المسح باستخدام مجموعة الأسئلة المختصرة لمجموعة واشنطن المعنية بالإعاقة، واقتصرت الدراسة على مستوى شدة الإعاقة من بسيطة إلى مطلقة. وبلغ حجم عينة الأطفال في العمر (7-17 سنة) 13,047طفلاً، من بينهم 6.06% معاق، وبلغ عدد الأفراد في العمر 21-29 سنة 9,064 فرداً، من بينهم 7.17% معاق. وكانت أهم نتائج الدراسة ارتفاع نسب الالتحاق بالتعليم في مصر بين الأطفال (7-17) سنة عام 2018، وأن الغالبية العظمى من الأطفال قادرون على الحصول على فرص الالتحاق بالتعليم بشكل متكافئ، إلا أن الأطفال ذوي الإعاقة هم الأكثر حرماناً من الالتحاق بالتعليم، وأن فرص الالتحاق بالتعليم موزعة بشكل غير عادل بينهم بمقدار ضعفي الوضع مقارنة بالأطفال غير ذوي الإعاقة. وكان الأفراد ذوو الإعاقة (21-29 سنة) أقل تمتعاً بالمساواة في الحصول على فرص إتمام التعليم مقارنة بغير ذوي الإعاقة. حيث تقل فرص المساواة في إتمام التعليم إلى ما يقرب من 17 درجة مئوية مقارنة بأقرانهم غير ذوي الإعاقة. وقد ساهم محل الإقامة حسب الأقاليم الجغرافية، يليه وجود أفراد آخرين من الأسرة من ذوي الإعاقة في لعب دور كبير في الالتحاق المدرسي بين الأطفال ذوي الإعاقة. وبمجرد التحاقهم، كان تعليم الأب ومستوى الثروة للأسرة من أكثر العوامل تأثيراً على النتائج التعليمية، يليهم محل الإقامة حسب الأقاليم الجغرافية. بينما كان تعليم الأب ومستوى ثروة الأسرة هما العاملين الأكثر أهمية في الالتحاق وإتمام التعليم بين الأطفال غير ذوي الإعاقة.

Access to finance is essential for fostering financial inclusion, improving household economic well-being, and stimulating economic growth. However, if not prudently managed, it can become a double-edged sword, increasing the risk of over-indebtedness, particularly among low-income households. This paper investigates the borrowing behavior of rural households in Egypt, exploring whether it is motivated by the optimization of intertemporal consumption or reflects deeper financial vulnerabilities. The study enhances our understanding of rural households’ financial behavior in Egypt and contributes to the literature by introducing perceived general self-efficacy as a key behavioral factor. The paper employs a quantitative methodology using a probit analysis of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey to explore the factors affecting the demand for formal loans, informal borrowing, and Rotating Saving and Credit Associations (RoSCAs). The results show that informal credit plays a dominant role in meeting rural households’ financial needs. A significant positive relationship between formal and informal credit suggests they are complementary. Elderly, married, less educated, and poorer individuals are more likely to seek both forms of credit, with employment stability being a key differentiator. Self-efficacy also has a significant positive effect. No significant regional differences are observed, except in the case of informal borrowing, with rural households in Upper Egypt showing less reliance, suggesting that social image may influence financial behavior in this region. The results suggest that demand for credit is driven by economic and financial vulnerability of rural households. The paper highlights key policy implications. First, to enhance participation in formal credit market, credit policies should offer more affordable, tailored credit relevant to starting a business rather than financing consumption, part of which is conspicuous. Second, the low self-efficacy among the rural poor suggests a need for policies that combine credit access with financial literacy and debt management support to prevent over-indebtedness.

Abstract This paper investigates the association between informal employment as a form of non‐standard employment and the prevalence of in‐work poverty for women in the health sector. We measured in‐work poverty using a binary indicator that provides information on whether an individual has earnings above or below the low earnings threshold. The indicator takes into account household size and whether other household members are also in paid work. Using data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey for the years 2012 and 2018 and logit models, we found that being employed within the health sector increased the likelihood of in‐work poverty among non‐standard employees, both men and women. However, higher risks of in‐work poverty were witnessed among women working informally in the health sector compared to other sectors. This increased risk was particularly observed when comparing non‐standard employment in the health sector to non‐standard employment in non‐health sectors. Furthermore, marital status plays a critical role in economic wellbeing, with never‐married women being more susceptible to in‐work poverty compared to ever‐married women.

هدف البحث الحالي التعرُّف على الإطار الفلسفي للتدريب التحويلي ودوره في إعادة تنمية مهارات الخريجين، والتعرُّف على الأسس النظريَّة للثورة الصناعيَّة الرابعة وانعكاساتها على وظائف ومهارات المستقبل، كما هدف البحث الكشف عن آراء خبراء التربية وتكنولوجيا التعليم حول المقومات الأساسية لإنشاء مركز للتدريب التحويلي بجامعة الأزهر ومتطلبات إنشائه، والتعرف على آراء مسئولي سوق العمل المصري عن أهم المهن والوظائف والمهارات التي تحتاج الأيدي العاملة إليها في ظل الثورة الصناعية الرابعة، وفي سبيل تحقيق ذلك استخدم البحث المنهج الوصفي، والمنهج الاستشرافي معتمدًا على أسلوب (دلفاي) والذي تمَّ تطبيقه على ثلاث جولات متتابعة من خلال ثلاث استبانات بحثيَّة تمَّ تطبيقها على مجموعة من خبراء التربية وتكنولوجيا التعليم من أعضاء هيئة التدريس بجامعة الأزهر ممَّن لهم اهتمامات بحثيَّة في مجال التدريب والدراسات المستقبليَّة، والبالغ عددهم (23) خبيرًا في الجولة الثالثة، كما تم تطبيق أداة مقابلة مفتوحة على عدد (11) فردًا من مسئولي سوق العمل؛ وتوصَّلت نتائج البحث إلى إجماع في الرأي بين الخبراء في تحديد المقومات اللازمة لإنشاء مركز للتدريب التحويلي بجامعة الأزهر في ضوء متطلبات الثورة الصناعيَّة الرابعة؛ وعلى ضوء ذلك قدم الباحثان رؤية مستقبليَّة مقترحة لإنشائه.

The rapid evolution and widespread adoption of Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are transforming the nature of work, presenting both opportunities and challenges in achieving the Sustainable Development Goal of productive and decent employment for all (SDG 8). While AI powered automation and augmentation can enhance efficiency, productivity, and decision making, driving innovation and economic growth, the unprecedented pace of change also raises concerns about job displacement, workforce disruption, and widening socio-economic divides. Navigating this complex landscape requires a multifaceted approach that balances the transformative potential of AI with proactive investment in education, training, and the development of ethical frameworks, as well as collaborative efforts between stakeholders, to harness the power of AI for positive societal transformation and a future of work that is both technologically advanced and socially responsible. The impact of AI on unemployment is multifaceted and debated. While AI has the potential to automate certain jobs, leading to displacement, it can also create new job opportunities and increase overall productivity. AI can replace repetitive tasks, transform existing jobs, and require new skill sets. The net impact on unemployment depends on the rate of AI implementation, workforce adaptability, and the creation of new jobs. So, the main objective of the study is to analyze the impact of AI technology on the labor market in Egypt and to determine to what extent AI affects unemployment in Egypt. The study used a regression model to test the relation between AI and unemployment in Egypt during the period of 2000 to 2022. The study concluded that There is a positive relationship between the artificial intelligence and unemployment. where the results showed that a 1% increase artificial intelligence will lead to around a 0.001 increase in unemployment. As the implementation of AI can lead to job displacement as automation replaces certain human tasks.

We use the 2018 round of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS) to investigate the public-private job satisfaction differential in the case of Egypt. Descriptive statistics show that public sector employees report higher job satisfaction levels compared to their private sector counterparts. For instance, the mean reported overall job satisfaction is 4.57, on a scale from 1 to 5, for public sector employees compared to 3.92 for private sector workers. We find that the difference persists, even after controlling for confounding factors in our regression models. We discuss the possible explanations of this public-private job satisfaction differential.

PurposeThis study aims to analyze to what extent distance education is feasible and efficient with the limited technological infrastructure in Egypt. The study answers this question from the perspective of households' preparedness level regarding possessing information and communication technologies (ICTs). In addition, it assesses whether the pattern of students' ICT ownership is influenced by disability- and socioeconomic-based inequality in education and whether the pattern of ICT ownership exacerbates such biases.Design/methodology/approachA three-stage probit model with double sample selection (PMDSS) was applied to estimate the factors likely to influence ICT possession, considering the selection process for school enrollment and education continuation. The authors utilized nationally representative data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey 2018.FindingsAbout 40% of students aged 12–25 did not have ICTs. Most socioeconomically poor households, particularly those living in Upper Egypt, were the least likely to obtain ICTs and rely on distance education. In addition, female students, particularly those with disabilities, had the lowest chance of benefitting from distance learning.Research limitations/implicationsThe persistent structural deprivation of school enrollment and educational progression has led to the positive selection of well-off children in education, which is extended to ICT possession and internet use. Without addressing these structural biases, the study suggests that distance education will likely exacerbate educational inequalities.Originality/valueThe study analyzed the extent to which Egyptian families were prepared in 2018 regarding ICT possessions for distance education for their children, particularly those with disabilities. Furthermore, it investigated whether access to distance learning was influenced by disability- and socioeconomic-based inequalities in education.

ABSTRACT This paper examines Egypt’s labor market transition dynamics post-Arab Spring based on the two most recent rounds of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey conducted in 2012 and 2018. In addition to providing disaggregated level analysis by examining labor market transitions by gender, education, and age groups, our paper provides a cross-country perspective by comparing Egypt’s labor market transitions with Jordan’s. Regression analyses focusing on transitions to and from the dominant absorbing labor market states in Egypt – public sector employment for both genders, non-participation for women, and the informal sector for men – show that having a post-secondary education is associated with a lower probability of remaining out of the labor force (OLF) for women who were already OLF at baseline, while being married at baseline is found to be a significant predictor for women to stay out of the labor force if they were already so. As for men, the better educated are found to be more likely to secure formal employment, be it in the public or in the private sector, and also more likely to keep their public formal jobs once they secure them.

Abstract This paper aims to identify the major significant dimensions that contribute to the overall quality of life (QOL) of wage workers in Egypt. As the QOL is a complex, multidimensional, and interdisciplinary concept, forty-seven indicators under five domains were chosen to investigate the QOL determinants of wage workers in Egypt, namely job characteristics, job satisfaction, ICT access, gender equality and women empowerment, and neighborhood services and utilities. Using data from the 2018 wave of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey, the paper employed structural equation modelling (SEM) approach to investigate the impact of proposed dimensions on the overall QOL. In addition, multi-group SEM analysis was implemented to measure how people differ in the way they assess their QOL on the basis of various moderating variables such as the geographical region of residence, age group, and years of schooling. The findings showed the significant impact of the chosen dimensions on the overall QOL. Moreover, the multi-group models showed a significant variation among compared groups, in which the weights of dimensions vary due to the differences in socio-cultural characteristics and the surrounding environment, confirming the complexity of such a concept. As people usually differ in the way they assess their QOL, which is affected by their characteristics and priorities.

This study contributes to the scarce literature in developing countries by causally analyzing the long-term impact of secondary general versus vocational education on labor market outcomes in Egypt. Our regression discontinuity design (RDD) exploits a cutoff in exam scores that tracks students in upper-secondary vocational or general education. Pooling data from the 2012 and 2018 Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS), we find that among male upper-secondary graduates aged 25–49 and employed in the private sector, general education graduates experience a relative advantage in terms of formal employment. We find no impact on employment, public-sector employment for the employed, or wages for those in wage employment. Given the relatively poor prospects of vocational graduates, who account for two-thirds of enrollment at the upper-secondary level, improving the efficiency of vocational upper-secondary education could have a significant impact on the working conditions of many Egyptians.

Abstract Despite Egypt's economic growth and educational expansion, gender inequalities and a lack of economic opportunities for young adults persist. Existing studies on social change in Egypt often rely on aggregate trend indicators or focus on isolated point‐in‐time work or family outcomes. This study adopts a life course perspective to (1) trace cohort changes in work‐family life courses for individuals born between 1956 and 1988 (N = 19,970) from 1965 to 2018, (2) assess gender inequality trends in life courses across cohorts, and (3) link different life course patterns to aggregate development indicators. Using retrospective data from the Egyptian Labor Market Panel, multichannel sequence and cluster analyses identify ten typical life course profiles that can be divided into: a state‐structured life course; and various manifestations of family‐ and market‐structured life courses. The economically secure state‐structured life course declined in favor of rising market‐structured and family‐structured life courses. Gender inequality in employment increased across cohorts. GDP growth was associated with economically insecure market‐structured life courses for men and family‐structured life courses of economic inactivity for women. Cohort change in life courses was most rapid in the transition period from authoritarian socialism to unregulated crony capitalism (1980–1990) when cohorts born in the 1970s reached adulthood.

Supporting ICT employment opportunities for women in Egypt Ragui Assaad and Irene Selwaness examine the increase of women in ICT jobs in Egypt, as well as gender disparities and the efforts to promote ICT employment growth. With the increasing withdrawal of the public sector as a major employer in Egypt, the Egyptian labour market has become increasingly inhospitable for women. Female employment rates declined steadily from 19.5% in 2009 to 13.7% in 2021. Women’s employment has been falling in absolute terms at a rate of 1.1% per year from 2009 to 2021, while the female working-age population has been increasing at 2.5% annually. Information and communication technology (ICT) jobs are a major bright spot in this bleak landscape. According to a recent report on Egypt’s ICT jobs, ICT employment for women has been growing much faster than in other segments of the economy and much faster than for men (Selwaness, Assaad and El Sayed, 2023). The report defines ICT jobs as all jobs in ICT industries and jobs in ICT occupations in non-ICT sectors.

Objective: This study investigates whether women’s agency changes with birth transitions in Egypt and if this change differs by education or rural vs. urban residence. Background: In the patriarchal context of Egypt, childbearing is almost universal and essential for women’s social position; therefore, it is a potentially relevant factor for agency. However, research on the relationship between childbirth and agency is rare, and little is known about the circumstances under which childbirth might increase agency. Method: Drawing on longitudinal data from the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (2006, 2012, 2018), this study uses fixed effects regression models to estimate the link between birth transitions and women’s agency. Results: The results show that the transition from having one child to having at least two children is positively associated with women's decision-making power but not their financial autonomy or freedom of movement. This positive relationship is stronger for low-educated women and those living in rural areas than for women with at least an intermediate education and those living in urban areas. Indeed, women living in urban areas have less agency after childbirth. Conclusion: Overall, the results indicate that birth transitions might affect agency, although not across all dimensions, and that the potential positive impact on agency is substantial only for women who are more restricted to the mother role and live in more patriarchal contexts.

Demographic pressures on the Egyptian labour market Ragui Assaad, Professor from Humphrey School of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota, explores the upcoming resumption of demographic pressures on the Egyptian labour market and what can be done about it. Although unemployment rates have been falling in Egypt in recent years, this trend will likely reverse in the next five to ten years as the “echo” generation comes of age and starts entering the labor market and substantially increasing labor supply.