Effects Of Spontaneous Breathing Research Articles

Changes in intrathoracic pressure, not arterial pulsations, exert the greatest effect on tracer influx in the spinal cord

BackgroundCerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation in the brain has garnered considerable attention in recent times. In contrast, there have been fewer studies focused on the spine, despite the expected importance of CSF circulation in disorders specific to the spine, including syringomyelia. The driving forces that regulate spinal CSF flow are not well defined and are likely to be different to the brain given the anatomical differences and proximity to the heart and lungs. The aims of this study were to determine the effects of heart rate, blood pressure and respiration on the distribution of CSF tracers in the spinal subarachnoid space, as well as into the spinal cord interstitium.MethodsIn Sprague Dawley rats, physiological parameters were manipulated such that the effects of spontaneous breathing (generating alternating positive and negative intrathoracic pressures), mechanical ventilation (positive intrathoracic pressure only), tachy/bradycardia, as well as hyper/hypotension were separately studied. To investigate spinal CSF hydrodynamics, in vivo near-infrared imaging of intracisternally infused indocyanine green was performed. CSF tracer transport was further characterised with in vivo two-photon intravital imaging. Tracer influx at a microscopic level was quantitatively characterised by ex vivo epifluorescence imaging of fluorescent ovalbumin.ResultsCompared to mechanically ventilated controls, spontaneous breathing animals had significantly greater movement of tracer in the subarachnoid space. There was also greater influx into the spinal cord interstitium. Hypertension and tachycardia had no significant effect on spinal subarachnoid spinal CSF tracer flux and exerted less effect than respiration on tracer influx into the spinal cord.ConclusionsIntrathoracic pressure changes that occur over the respiratory cycle, particularly decreased intrathoracic pressures generated during inspiration, have a profound effect on tracer movement after injection into spinal CSF and increase cord parenchymal tracer influx. Arterial pulsations likely drive fluid transport from perivascular spaces into the surrounding interstitium, but their overall impact is less than that of the respiratory cycle on net tracer influx.

Tachycardia and hypertension enhance tracer efflux from the spinal cord

BackgroundDisruption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/interstitial fluid (ISF) exchange in the spinal cord is likely to contribute to central nervous system (CNS) diseases that involve abnormal fluid accumulation, including spinal cord oedema and syringomyelia. However, the physiological factors that govern fluid transport in the spinal cord are poorly understood. The aims of this study were to determine the effects of cardiac pulsations and respiration on tracer signal increase, indicative of molecular movement following infusion into the spinal cord grey or white matter.MethodsIn Sprague Dawley rats, physiological parameters were manipulated such that the effects of spontaneous breathing (generating alternating positive and negative intrathoracic pressures), mechanical ventilation (positive intrathoracic pressure only), tachycardia (heart atrial pacing), as well as hypertension (pharmacologically induced) were separately studied. Since fluid outflow from the spinal cord cannot be directly measured, we assessed the molecular movement of fluorescent ovalbumin (AFO-647), visualised by an increase in tracer signal, following injection into the cervicothoracic spinal grey or white matter.ResultsTachycardia and hypertension increased AFO-647 tracer efflux, while the concomitant negative and positive intrathoracic pressures generated during spontaneous breathing did not when compared to the positive-pressure ventilated controls. Following AFO-647 tracer injection into the spinal grey matter, increasing blood pressure and heart rate resulted in increased tracer movement away from the injection site compared to the hypotensive, bradycardic animals (hypertension: p = 0.05, tachycardia: p < 0.0001). Similarly, hypertension and tachycardia produced greater movement of AFO-647 tracer longitudinally along the spinal cord following injection into the spinal white matter (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.002, respectively). Tracer efflux was strongly associated with all blood vessel types.ConclusionsArterial pulsations have profound effects on spinal cord interstitial fluid homeostasis, generating greater tracer efflux than intrathoracic pressure changes that occur over the respiratory cycle, demonstrated by increased craniocaudal CSF tracer movement in the spinal cord parenchyma.

Effect of spontaneous breathing on ventilator-free days in critically ill patients-an analysis of patients in a large observational cohort.

BackgroundMechanical ventilation can injure lung tissue and respiratory muscles. The aim of the present study is to assess the effect of the amount of spontaneous breathing during mechanical ventilation on patient outcomes.MethodsThis is an analysis of the database of the ‘Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC)’-III, considering intensive care units (ICUs) of the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), Boston, MA. Adult patients who received invasive ventilation for at least 48 hours were included. Patients were categorized according to the amount of spontaneous breathing, i.e., ≥50% (‘high spontaneous breathing’) and <50% (‘low spontaneous breathing’) of time during first 48 hours of ventilation. The primary outcome was the number of ventilator-free days.ResultsIn total, the analysis included 3,380 patients; 70.2% were classified as ‘high spontaneous breathing’, and 29.8% as ‘low spontaneous breathing’. Patients in the ‘high spontaneous breathing’ group were older, had more comorbidities, and lower severity scores. In adjusted analysis, the amount of spontaneous breathing was not associated with the number of ventilator-free days [20.0 (0.0–24.2) vs. 19.0 (0.0–23.7) in high vs. low; absolute difference, 0.54 (95% CI, –0.10 to 1.19); P=0.101]. However, ‘high spontaneous breathing' was associated with shorter duration of ventilation in survivors [6.5 (3.6 to 12.2) vs. 7.6 (4.1 to 13.9); absolute difference, –0.91 (95% CI, −1.80 to −0.02); P=0.046].ConclusionsIn patients surviving and receiving ventilation for at least 48 hours, the amount of spontaneous breathing during this period was not associated with an increased number of ventilator-free days.

Effect of spontaneous breathing on atelectasis during induction of general anaesthesia in infants: A prospective randomised controlled trial.

Atelectasis occurs commonly during induction of general anaesthesia in children, particularly infants. We hypothesised that maintaining spontaneous ventilation can reduce atelectasis formation during anaesthetic induction in infants. We compared spontaneous ventilation and manual positive-pressure ventilation in terms of atelectasis formation in infants. Randomised controlled study. Single tertiary hospital in Seoul, Republic of Korea, from November 2018 to December 2019. We enrolled 60 children younger than 1 year of age undergoing general anaesthesia, of whom 56 completed the study. Exclusion criteria were history of hypoxaemia during previous general anaesthesia, development of a respiratory tract infection within 1 month, current intubation or tracheostomy cannulation, need for rapid sequence intubation, preterm birth, age within 60 weeks of the postconceptional age and the presence of contraindications for rocuronium or sodium thiopental. Patients were allocated randomly to either the 'spontaneous' group or 'controlled' group. During preoxygenation, spontaneous ventilation was maintained in the 'spontaneous' group while conventional bag-mask ventilation was provided in the 'controlled' group. After 5 min of preoxygenation, a lung ultrasound examination was performed to compare atelectasis formation in the two groups. Atelectasis after preoxygenation was seen in seven (26.9%) of 26 patients in the 'spontaneous' group and 22 (73.3%) of 30 patients in the 'controlled' group (P = 0.001). The relative risk of atelectasis in the 'spontaneous' group was 0.39 (95% CI 0.211 to 0.723). Regarding ultrasound pictures of consolidation, the total score and sum of scores in the dependent regions were significantly lower in the 'spontaneous' group than in the 'controlled' group (P = 0.007 and 0.001, respectively). Maintaining spontaneous ventilation during induction of general anaesthesia has a preventive effect against atelectasis in infants younger than 1 year of age, particularly in the dependent portions of the lungs. Clinicaltrials.gov (identifier: NCT03739697).

Effect of spontaneous breathing on umbilical venous blood flow and placental transfusion during delayed cord clamping in preterm lambs

IntroductionDuring delayed umbilical cord clamping, the factors underpinning placental transfusion remain unknown. We hypothesised that reductions in thoracic pressure during inspiration would enhance placental transfusion in spontaneously breathing preterm lambs.ObjectiveInvestigate...

Spontaneous Breathing in Early Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Insights From the Large Observational Study to UNderstand the Global Impact of Severe Acute Respiratory FailurE Study.

To describe the characteristics and outcomes of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome with or without spontaneous breathing and to investigate whether the effects of spontaneous breathing on outcome depend on acute respiratory distress syndrome severity. Planned secondary analysis of a prospective, observational, multicentre cohort study. International sample of 459 ICUs from 50 countries. Patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome and at least 2 days of invasive mechanical ventilation and available data for the mode of mechanical ventilation and respiratory rate for the 2 first days. Analysis of patients with and without spontaneous breathing, defined by the mode of mechanical ventilation and by actual respiratory rate compared with set respiratory rate during the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation. Spontaneous breathing was present in 67% of patients with mild acute respiratory distress syndrome, 58% of patients with moderate acute respiratory distress syndrome, and 46% of patients with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Patients with spontaneous breathing were older and had lower acute respiratory distress syndrome severity, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores, ICU and hospital mortality, and were less likely to be diagnosed with acute respiratory distress syndrome by clinicians. In adjusted analysis, spontaneous breathing during the first 2 days was not associated with an effect on ICU or hospital mortality (33% vs 37%; odds ratio, 1.18 [0.92-1.51]; p = 0.19 and 37% vs 41%; odds ratio, 1.18 [0.93-1.50]; p = 0.196, respectively ). Spontaneous breathing was associated with increased ventilator-free days (13 [0-22] vs 8 [0-20]; p = 0.014) and shorter duration of ICU stay (11 [6-20] vs 12 [7-22]; p = 0.04). Spontaneous breathing is common in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome during the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation. Spontaneous breathing is not associated with worse outcomes and may hasten liberation from the ventilator and from ICU. Although these results support the use of spontaneous breathing in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome independent of acute respiratory distress syndrome severity, the use of controlled ventilation indicates a bias toward use in patients with higher disease severity. In addition, because the lack of reliable data on inspiratory effort in our study, prospective studies incorporating the magnitude of inspiratory effort and adjusting for all potential severity confounders are required.

The Effects of Propofol and Isoflurane Sedation on the Outcomes of Surgical Patients Receiving Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation

This article resurrects a historical technique using a new technology by describing the results of a retrospective, observational, single-center study that investigated the effects of propofol compared with isoflurane sedation on patient outcomes after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). No differences in patient outcomes were observed between the propofol and isoflurane groups. Nevertheless, the results of this study might improve our understanding of the effects of sedation on patient outcomes after ECMO and provide insight into the effects of spontaneous breathing during ECMO.

Systemic haemodynamics and regional tissue oxygen saturation after bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt: positive pressure ventilation versus spontaneous breathing

Spontaneous breathing has been shown to improve global haemodynamics in patients with bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt. What has not been evaluated, however, is the effect of spontaneous breathing on the distribution of cardiac output after bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt. We investigated the effects of extubation on systemic haemodynamics and regional tissue oxygen saturation, and determined whether redistribution of cardiac output is present after extubation in these patients. In 24 patients undergoing bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt, standard haemodynamic variables including heart rate, arterial blood pressure and central venous pressure were monitored continuously. Near-infrared spectroscopy of the brain and mesenteric circulation was monitored and recorded every hour. Cardiac index, derived from ascending aorta flow, was measured by ultrasound at three time points: 30 min before, 30 min after and 12 h after extubation. The central venous pressure decreased significantly from 19.50 ± 3.65 mmHg before extubation to 16.17 ± 3.41 mmHg 30 min after extubation (P = 0.006) and 13.96 ± 2.49 mmHg 12 h after extubation (P = 0.001). Cardiac index increased significantly from 3.32 ± 0.43 l/min/m(2) before extubation to 3.73 ± 0.51 l/min/m(2) 30 min after extubation (P = 0.012) and 3.98 ± 0.54 l/min/m(2) 12 h after extubation (P = 0.001). Cerebral oxygen saturation increased from 50.83 ± 5.84% before extubation to 56.79 ± 8.64% 30 min after extubation (P = 0.023), then remained unchanged for the following 12 h. Mesenteric oxygen saturation remained unchanged during the early period of extubation, but increased significantly 12 h after extubation (P = 0.002). The lower values of cerebral oxygen saturation before extubation indicated that the cerebral blood flow was less satisfactory. During the early period of extubation, despite the increase in cardiac index, the mesenteric oxygen saturation is lower than that at 12 h after extubation, suggesting that the obligatory increase in respiratory muscle perfusion and the increase in cerebral oxygen saturation have utilized most of the flow from the increased cardiac index. The increase in mesenteric oxygen saturation 12 h after extubation suggests a gradual improvement in microcirculation and macrocirculation.

Initial commitment for inhalation injury

26. Mehta S, Lapinsky SE, Hallett DC, et al. Prospective trial of high‐frequency oscillation in adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(7):1360–1369. 27. Wrigge H, Zinserling J, Neumann P, et al. Spontaneous breathing with airway pressure release ventilation favors ventilation in dependent lung regions and counters cyclic alveolar collapse in oleic‐acidinduced lung injury: a randomized controlled computed tomography trial. Crit Care. 2005;9(6):R780–R789. 28. Yoshida T, Rinka H, Kaji A, et al. The impact of spontaneous ventilation on distribution of lung aeration in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: airway pressure release ventilation versus pressure support ventilation. Anesth Analg. 2009;109(6):1892–1900. 29. Putensen C, Zech S, Wrigge H, et al. Longterm effects of spontaneous breathing during ventilatory support in patients with acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(1):43–49. 30. Albert S, Kubiak BD, Vieau CJ, et al. Comparison of “open lung”modes with low tidal volumes in a porcine lung injury model. J Surg Res. 2011;166(1):e71–e81. 31. Walkey AJ, Nair S, Papadopoulos S, Agarwal S, Reardon CC. Use of airway pressure release ventilation is associated with a reduced incidence of ventilatorassociated pneumonia in patients with pulmonary contusion. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2011;70(3):E42–E47. 32. Maung AA, Luckianow G, Kaplan LJ. Lessons learned from airway pressure release ventilation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;72(3):624–628. 33. Hanna K, Seder CW, Weinberger JB, Sills PA, Hagan M, Janczyk RJ. Airway pressure release ventilation and successful lung donation. Arch Surg. 2011;146(3):325–328.

The effect of spontaneous breathing on systemic interleukin-6 during ventilator weaning

During the weaning process, spontaneous breathing trials (SBTs) involve cardiopulmonary stress for ventilated patients. As interleukin (IL)-6 is a major modulator of the stress response, we hypothesised that systemic IL-6 increases during a SBT and that this increase is more evident in SBT failure. 49 SBTs of 30-min duration were performed on different mechanically ventilated patients, and classified as SBT failure or success. Blood samples were drawn before and at the end of the SBT. An additional sample was drawn 24 h later in a subset of patients (n = 39). Serum IL-6 levels and other inflammatory mediators commonly associated with stress were determined. IL-6 levels increased from mechanical ventilation to spontaneous breathing in all patients (p = 0.02) and in the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) population (p = 0.05) with SBT failure compared with success, but not in non-COPD patients (p = 0.12). After 24 h of SBT stress, IL-6 levels decreased in patients with SBT failure (under mechanical ventilation at that point) (p = 0.02) and those with weaning success (p = 0.04). No changes were observed in the remaining inflammatory mediators. Systemic IL-6 increases during a 30-min, failed SBT, especially in COPD patients. Future studies may corroborate the different IL-6 responses among different populations who initiate weaning, together with the potential clinical implications.

Pressure- and Work-Limited Neuroadaptive Control for Mechanical Ventilation of Critical Care Patients

In this paper, we develop a neuroadaptive control architecture to control lung volume and minute ventilation with input pressure constraints that also accounts for spontaneous breathing by the patient. Specifically, we develop a pressure - and work-limited neuroadaptive controller for mechanical ventilation based on a nonlinear multicompartmental lung model. The control framework does not rely on any averaged data and is designed to automatically adjust the input pressure to the patient's physiological characteristics capturing lung resistance and compliance modeling uncertainty. Moreover, the controller accounts for input pressure constraints as well as work of breathing constraints. Finally, the effect of spontaneous breathing is incorporated within the lung model and the control framework.

Effect of spontaneous breathing on ventilator-induced lung injury in mechanically ventilated healthy rabbits: a randomized, controlled, experimental study

IntroductionVentilator-induced lung injury (VILI), one of the most serious complications of mechanical ventilation (MV), can impact patients' clinical prognoses. Compared to control ventilation, preserving spontaneous breathing can improve many physiological features in ventilated patients, such as gas distribution, cardiac performance, and ventilation-perfusion matching. However, the effect of spontaneous breathing on VILI is unknown. The goal of this study was to compare the effects of spontaneous breathing and control ventilation on lung injury in mechanically-ventilated healthy rabbits.MethodsSixteen healthy New Zealand white rabbits were randomly placed into a spontaneous breathing group (SB Group) and a control ventilation group (CV Group). Both groups were ventilated for eight hours using biphasic positive airway pressure (BIPAP) with similar ventilator parameters: inspiration pressure (PI) resulting in a tidal volume (VT) of 10 to 15 ml/kg, inspiratory-to-expiratory ratio of 1:1, positive end-expiration pressure (PEEP) of 2 cmH2O, and FiO2 of 0.5. Inflammatory markers in blood serum, lung homogenates and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), total protein levels in BALF, mRNA expressions of selected cytokines in lung tissue, and lung injury histopathology scores were determined.ResultsAnimals remained hemodynamically stable throughout the entire experiment. After eight hours of MV, compared to the CV Group, the SB Group had lower PaCO2 values and ratios of dead space to tidal volume, and higher lung compliance. The levels of cytokines in blood serum and BALF in both groups were similar, but spontaneous breathing led to significantly lower cytokine mRNA expressions in lung tissues and lower lung injury histological scores.ConclusionsPreserving spontaneous breathing can not only improve ventilatory function, but can also attenuate selected markers of VILI in the mechanically-ventilated healthy lung.

Neonatal volume guarantee ventilation: effects of spontaneous breathing, triggered and untriggered inflations

Background:During volume guarantee (VG) ventilation the peak inflating pressure (PIP) for each ventilator inflation is adjusted to ensure the expired tidal volume (VTe) is close to the set VTe. Differences...

Effects of spontaneous breathing during airway pressure release ventilation on intestinal blood flow in experimental lung injury.

In critical illness, the gut is susceptible to hypoperfusion and hypoxia. Positive-pressure ventilation can affect systemic hemodynamics and regional blood flow distribution, with potentially deleterious effects on the intestinal circulation. The authors hypothesized that spontaneous breathing (SB) with airway pressure release ventilation (APRV) provides better systemic and intestinal blood flow than APRV without SB. Twelve pigs with oleic acid-induced lung injury received APRV with and without SB. When SB was abolished, either the tidal volume or the ventilator rate was increased to maintain pH and arterial carbon dioxide tension constant as compared to APRV with SB. Systemic hemodynamics were determined by double indicator dilution. Blood flow to the intestinal mucosa-submucosa and muscularis-serosa was measured using colored microspheres. Systemic blood flow increased during APRV with SB. During APRV with SB, mucosal-submucosal blood flow (ml. g-1. min-1) was 0.39 +/- 0.21 in the stomach, 0.76 +/- 0.35 in the duodenum, 0.71 +/- 0.35 in the jejunum, 0.71 +/- 0.59 in the ileum, and 0.63 +/- 0.21 in the colon. During APRV without SB and high tidal volumes, it decreased to 0.19 +/- 0.03 in the stomach, 0.42 +/- 0.21 in the duodenum, 0.37 +/- 0.10 in the jejunum, 0.3 +/- 0.14 in the ileum, and 0.41 +/- 0.14 in the colon (P < 0.001, respectively). During APRV without SB and low tidal volumes, the respective mucosal-submucosal blood flows decreased to 0.24 +/- 0.10 (P < 0.01), 0.54 +/- 0.21 (P < 0.05), 0.48 +/- 0.17 (P < 0.01), 0.43 +/- 0.21 (P < 0.01), and 0.50 +/- 0.17 (P < 0.001) as compared to APRV with SB. Muscularis-serosal perfusion decreased during full ventilatory support with high tidal volumes in comparison with APRV with SB. Maintaining SB during APRV was associated with better systemic and intestinal blood flows. Improvements were more pronounced in the mucosal-submucosal layer.

Ventilation-perfusion distributions during mechanical ventilation with superimposed spontaneous breathing in canine lung injury.

Biphasic positive airway pressure (BIPAP) allows unrestricted spontaneous breathing throughout mechanical ventilation. Effects of spontaneous breathing during BIPAP on pulmonary gas exchange were studied on a randomized basis in 12 dogs with oleic acid-induced lung injury using the multiple inert gas elimination technique. Spontaneous breathing during BIPAP, accounting for 10% of minute ventilation (VE), increased PaO2 from 61 +/- 2 to 78 +/- 3 mm Hg (mean +/- SE) (p < 0.01), cardiac output from 4.2 +/- 0.3 to 4.6 +/- 0.3 L/min (p < 0.05), and oxygen delivery from 537 +/- 51 to 716 +/- 58 ml/kg/min (p < 0.05), whereas oxygen consumption and total VE remained unchanged. Improved pulmonary gas exchange caused by better ventilation/perfusion (VA/Q) matching was indicated by a 17 +/- 3% decrease (p < 0.01) in blood flow to shunt units (VA/Q < 0.005), a 15 +/- 3% increase (p < 0.05) in perfusion of normal VA/Q units (0.1 < VA/Q < 10), and a 6 +/- 3% reduction in ventilation of dead space (VA/Q > 100) areas (p < 0.05). Spontaneous breaths superimposed on mechanical ventilation may convert shunt VA/Q units to normal by increased ventilation of poorly or nonventilated units and/or increase blood flow to previously minimal or nonperfused areas.

Metabolic acid-base status and the role of carotid chemoreceptors in hyperoxic breathing.

There is controversy as to how much the peripheral chemoreceptors may contribute to pulmonary ventilation during hyperoxia under normocapnic and hypercapnic conditions. Whereas cutting the carotid sinus nerves (CSN) is reported to considerably depress ventilation in cats (Katsaros, 1968, Berkenbosch et al., 1979), we did not find any significant effect of cutting or cooling the CSN in rabbits (Kiwull et al., 1972). It has to be questioned, whether the metabolic acid-base status under otherwise normal blood-gas conditions could be responsible for these discrepancies. To exclude feedback effects of spontaneous breathing, this study was carried out with artificial ventilation.

Pleural pressure measured in the zone of apposition of diaphragm to rib cage in rabbits.

In 10 anesthetized adult rabbits, we studied the effect of spontaneous breathing and positive pressure ventilation on pleural pressure on the costal lung surface (Ppl) and in the zone of apposition of the rib cage to the diaphragm (Papp). Ppl and Papp were measured by rib capsules installed in the 5th or 6th rib and 11th or 12th rib, respectively. Esophageal (Pes) and gastric (Pga) pressures were measured with air-filled balloons. At end expiration (functional residual capacity), Ppl was subatmospheric (-2.5 +/- 1.4 cm H2O), decreased during spontaneous inspiration, and was in phase with Pes. In contrast, Papp was above atmospheric pressure (2.1 +/- 1.8 cm H2O), increased during inspiration, and was in phase with Pga. Papp lagged Ppl by 180 degrees during spontaneous inspiration but was in phase with Ppl during mechanical ventilation. Changes in Ppl (delta Ppl) during inspiration were greater in magnitude than either delta Papp or delta Pga. Changes in transdiaphragmatic pressure in the zone of apposition (delta Pga-delta Papp) were near zero (-0.4 +/- 0.3 cm H2O), much smaller in magnitude than those (delta Pga-delta Ppl) associated with the lung (3.0 +/- 1.5 cm H2O). These results are consistent with the concept that during breathing, abdominal pressure is transmitted to the zone of apposition of the rib cage to the abdomen. During spontaneous breathing at rest, the pleural space in the zone of apposition is mechanically independent of the pleural space associated with the lung.