Lexical Effects Research Articles

Lexical case marking affects the processing of animacy in simple verbs, but not particle verbs: Evidence from event-related potentials

In case-marking languages like German, nonstandard nominative-dative verbs lead to enhanced processing costs. So far, it is unclear if these case-marking effects reflect the special syntax or semantics of nominative-dative verbs. We present the results of two ERP experiments aimed to disentangle semantic and syntactic contributions to lexical case-marking by manipulating object animacy and case-marking for two verb types: simple verbs (nonstandard syntax and semantics for nominative-dative verbs) and particle verbs (nonstandard semantics only). Simple nominative-dative verbs show effects of case-marking, and no animacy effects. Particle verbs show no effects of case-marking, and animacy effects for nominative-accusative and nominative-dative verbs. Our findings suggest that lexical case-marking effects reflect the special syntax, rather than semantics, of simple nominative-dative verbs.

Does the visual attention span play a role in the morphological processing of orthographic stimuli?

We investigated whether the link between visual attention (VA) span and reading is modulated by the presence of morphemes. Second and fourth grade children, with Basque as their first language, named morphologically complex and simple words and pseudowords, and performed a task measuring VA span. The influence of VA span skills on reading was modulated by the presence of morphemes in naming speed measures. In addition, fourth grade children with a larger VA span showed larger lexicality effects (pseudoword-word reading times) only for morphologically simple stimuli. Results are interpreted as support for the notion that both transparency and morphological complexity are important factors modulating the impact of VA span skills on reading.

Lexicality and emotion effects in sub- and supraliminally presented masked mood adjectives - a preliminary ERP study

Lexicality and emotion effects in sub- and supraliminally presented masked mood adjectives - a preliminary ERP study

Exploring the lexical competition and repetition priming effects in L2 verb generation

Word-generation tasks have been frequently used in behavioral and neuroimaging research to explore the mechanisms of semantic retrieval and competition during language production. In the current st...

Processing of parafoveally presented words. An fMRI study

The present fMRI study investigated neural correlates of parafoveal preprocessing during reading and the type of information that is accessible from the upcoming - not yet fixated - word. Participants performed a lexical decision flanker task while the constraints imposed by the first three letters (the initial trigram) of parafoveally presented words were controlled. Behavioral results evidenced that the amount of information extracted from parafoveal stimuli, was affected by the difficulty of the foveal stimulus. Easy to process foveal stimuli (i.e., high frequency nouns) allowed parafoveal information to be extracted up to the lexical level. Conversely, when foveal stimuli were difficult to process (orthographically legal nonwords) only constraining trigrams modulated the task performance. Neuroimaging findings showed no effects of lexicality (i.e., difference between words and pseudowords) in the parafovea independently from the difficulty of the foveal stimulus. The constraints imposed by the initial trigrams, however, modulated the hemodynamic response in the left supramarginal gyrus. We interpreted the supramarginal activation as reflecting sublexical (phonological) processes. The missing parafoveal lexicality effect was discussed in relation to findings of experiments which observed effects of parafoveal semantic congruency on electrophysiological correlates.

RTMS evidence for a dissociation in short-term memory for spoken words and nonwords

Differing patterns of verbal short-term memory (STM) impairment have provided unique insights into the relationship between STM and broader language function. Lexicality effects (i.e., better recall for words than nonwords) are larger in patients with phonological deficits following left temporoparietal lesions, and smaller in patients with semantic impairment and anterior temporal damage, supporting linguistic accounts of STM. However, interpretation of these patient dissociations are complicated by (i) non-focal damage and (ii) confounding factors and secondary impairments. This study addressed these issues by examining the impact of inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) on auditory-verbal STM performance in healthy individuals. We compared the effects of TMS to left anterior supramarginal gyrus (SMG) and left anterior middle temporal gyrus (ATL) on STM for lists of nonwords and random words. SMG stimulation disrupted nonword recall, in a pattern analogous to that observed in patients, compatible with a role for this site in processing speech sounds without support from long-term lexical-semantic representations. Stimulation of ATL, a semantic site, disrupted the recall of words but not nonwords. A visual pattern memory task indicated that these effects of TMS were restricted to the verbal domain. These data provide convergent evidence for the conclusions of neuropsychological studies that support linguistic accounts of verbal STM.

The Impact of Lexical Characteristics and Noise on Intelligibility of Parkinsonian Speech.

This study investigated the impact of lexical characteristics on the intelligibility of speakers with Parkinson's disease (PD). Intelligibility was compared for listening in a quiet versus a noisy environment. A total of 192 young listeners participated in the study, with 96 listeners listening in quiet and 96 listening in noise in which the spoken sentences were mixed with 10-talker babble. The listeners transcribed spoken sentences with target words controlled for word frequency and neighborhood density. The sentences were produced by 12 speakers with PD and 12 healthy control (HC) speakers. Transcription accuracy was compared across lexical categories between PD and HC and between the two listening conditions. Transcription accuracy was higher for high-frequency words than low-frequency words for both speaker groups in quiet and in noise. The neighborhood density effect was evident only in the noise condition with better intelligibility for words from sparse neighborhoods than from dense neighborhoods. Regardless of listening condition, the PD group was less intelligible with a significant decrease in intelligibility in noise relative to quiet. The lexical properties of the words affected listeners' understanding of Parkinsonian speech. Frequent words in sparse neighborhood enhanced intelligibility, especially under adverse listening conditions. Babble noise had a detrimental impact on the intelligibility of Parkinsonian speech. The extent of the lexical effect on intelligibility increased in noise.

The non-strategic nature of linguistic long-term memory effects in verbal short-term memory

Abstract The contribution of lexical and semantic knowledge to verbal short-term memory (vSTM) span is explained by language-based models, assuming that vSTM is deeply grounded within the linguistic system with to-be-remembered items being activated in a non-strategic and automatic manner. However, direct evidence for a non-strategic account of lexical and semantic contributions to vSTM span is scarce. In this study, we assessed the influence of several types of long-term linguistic knowledge (lexicality, lexical frequency, semantic similarity and imageability) on vSTM using a fast encoding running span procedure preventing any strategic processes during encoding. We observed reliable effects of lexicality (words vs. nonwords, Experiment 1), lexical frequency (high vs. low frequency words, Experiment 2) and semantic similarity (related vs. unrelated lists, Experiment 3) on running span performance. However, word imageability (high vs. low imageability words, Experiment 4) did not consistently impact running span performance. Experiment 5 showed that the imageability effect only appears in standard immediate serial recall conditions which do not prevent list-strategic encoding. This study provides novel evidence for linguistic accounts of vSTM by demonstrating a robust impact of lexical and surface-level semantic knowledge on vSTM in non-strategic, fast-encoding conditions.

Testing the redintegration hypothesis by a single probe recognition paradigm

ABSTRACTThe lexicality effect in verbal short-term memory (STM), in which word lists are better recalled than nonwords lists, is considered to reflect the influence of linguistic long-term memory (LTM) knowledge on verbal STM performance. The locus of this effect remains, however, a matter of debate. The redintegrative account considers that degrading phonological traces of memoranda are reconstructed at recall by selecting lexical LTM representations that match the phonological traces. According to a strong version of this account, redintegrative processes should be strongly reduced in recognition paradigms, leading to reduced LTM effects. We tested this prediction by contrasting word and nonword memoranda in a fast encoding probe recognition paradigm. We observed a very strong lexicality effect, with better and faster recognition performance for words as compared to nonwords. These results do not support a strong version of the redintegrative account of LTM effects in STM which considers that these LTM effects would be the exclusive product of reconstruction mechanisms. If redintegration processes intervene in STM recognition tasks, they must be very fast, which at the same time provides support for models considering direct activation of lexico-semantic knowledge during verbal STM tasks.

The neural correlates of morphological complexity processing: Detecting structure in pseudowords.

Morphological complexity is a highly debated issue in visual word recognition. Previous neuroimaging studies have shown that speakers are sensitive to degrees of morphological complexity. Two-step derived complex words (bridging through bridgeN > bridgeV > bridging) led to more enhanced activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus than their 1-step derived counterparts (running through runV > running). However, it remains unclear whether sensitivity to degrees of morphological complexity extends to pseudowords. If this were the case, it would indicate that abstract knowledge of morphological structure is independent of lexicality. We addressed this question by investigating the processing of two sets of pseudowords in German. Both sets contained morphologically viable two-step derived pseudowords differing in the number of derivational steps required to access an existing lexical representation and therefore the degree of structural analysis expected during processing. Using a 2 × 2 factorial design, we found lexicality effects to be distinct from processing signatures relating to structural analysis in pseudowords. Semantically-driven processes such as lexical search showed a more frontal distribution while combinatorial processes related to structural analysis engaged more parietal parts of the network. Specifically, more complex pseudowords showed increased activation in parietal regions (right superior parietal lobe and left precuneus) relative to pseudowords that required less structural analysis to arrive at an existing lexical representation. As the two sets were matched on cohort size and surface form, these results highlight the role of internal levels of morphological structure even in forms that do not possess a lexical representation.

Dynamic adjustment of lexical processing in the lexical decision task: Cross-trial sequence effects.

There has been growing interest in dynamic changes in the lexical processing system across trials, which have typically been assessed via linear mixed effect modelling. In the current study, we explore the influence of previous trial lexicality and previous trial perceptual degradation on the effect of lexicality and degradation on the current trial. The results of analyses of three datasets (two previously published studies and a new study) provide evidence for a robust four-way interaction among previous trial lexicality and degradation and current trial lexicality and degradation effects. Discussion emphasizes how priming of relevant dimensions (clear vs. degraded or word vs. nonword) within the experimental context modulates the influence of degradation on the current trial as a function of lexicality. These results suggest that in lexical decision there are robust lingering effects of the previous stimulus and response that carry over to the current stimulus and response, and participants cannot tune task-related systems to only the present trial. Importantly, although these complex relationships are theoretically important regarding lexical and decision level processes, these complexities also reinforce Keith Rayner's emphasis on on-line eye-tracking measures during reading as the most straightforward window into word-level processes engaged during reading.

Eye movements when reading sentences with handwritten words.

The examination of how we read handwritten words (i.e., the original form of writing) has typically been disregarded in the literature on reading. Previous research using word recognition tasks has shown that lexical effects (e.g., the word-frequency effect) are magnified when reading difficult handwritten words. To examine this issue in a more ecological scenario, we registered the participants' eye movements when reading handwritten sentences that varied in the degree of legibility (i.e., sentences composed of words in easy vs. difficult handwritten style). For comparison purposes, we included a condition with printed sentences. Results showed a larger reading cost for sentences with difficult handwritten words than for sentences with easy handwritten words, which in turn showed a reading cost relative to the sentences with printed words. Critically, the effect of word frequency was greater for difficult handwritten words than for easy handwritten words or printed words in the total times on a target word, but not on first-fixation durations or gaze durations. We examine the implications of these findings for models of eye movement control in reading.

Examining the auditory approach: Lexical effects in the perceptual judgment of Chinese L2 tone production

AbstractAuditory perception is generally used by raters who are asked to evaluate the accuracy of tone production by non-native speakers (hereafter NNSs) who are learning Mandarin Chinese. However, its validity needs to be examined as the native speaking (hereafter NS) listeners’ lexical knowledge (i.e., knowing the possible combination of syllables and tones) may affect their judgments in different listening contexts. This lexical effect has been reported at the segmental level in non-tonal languages (McClelland et al. 2006; Norris et al. 2000). The present study extends to the suprasegmental dimension and compares NS listeners’ judgment on NNSs’ tonal performance of high frequency disyllabic word covering Mandarin disyllabic tonal combination in three lexical contexts, namely (1) hearing pairs of humming tones (syllables removed viaPraat); (2) hearing disyllabic words (syllables + tones); (3) hearing disyllabic words + seeing targetpinyinorthography. Statistical analyses revealed a significant effect of lexical contexts on the perceived tone accuracy, which increased when auditory and visual lexical cues were available, as in Conditions 2 and 3. Acoustic analyses further revealed the nature of the two lexical effects. Hearing words had a positive effect on the precision of the NSs’ tonal perception compared to hearing tones only. However, the visual presence ofpinyinmisled NSs to compensate for learners’ tone production deficiencies. The findings have implications for future research involving the rating of tones using auditory approach and also shed light on the teaching of Mandarin tones to NNSs.

Neural correlates of the lexicality effect in children

The comparison of words and pseudowords has been extensively used in adult neuroimaging studies to inform neurocognitive models of reading but has rarely been used to inform models of reading acquisition. Using a rhyming judgment task, the current study examined age-related differences in the spelling to sound mapping mechanisms involved in word and pseudoword reading. We hypothesized a developmental increase in specialization of the brain mechanisms engaged for word and pseudoword processing. Consistent with adult studies, children in the current study demonstrated a greater activation for words as compared to pseudowords in the anterior left ventral occipito-temporal cortex (vOT). Inconsistent with adult studies, children also showed greater activation for words as compared to pseudowords in the mid-posterior left vOT, indicating a robust semantic influence on orthographic processing in young readers. Furthermore, our results did not indicate a lexicality by age interaction for 8- to 13-year-old children, suggesting that the adult-like specialization in the left vOT only appears later in development.

Reading and lexicalization in opaque and transparent orthographies: Word naming and word learning in English and Spanish.

Do skilled readers of opaque and transparent orthographies make differential use of lexical and sublexical processes when converting words from print to sound? Two experiments are reported, which address that question, using effects of letter length on naming latencies as an index of the involvement of sublexical letter-sound conversion. Adult native speakers of English (Experiment 1) and Spanish (Experiment 2) read aloud four- and seven-letter high-frequency words, low-frequency words, and nonwords in their native language. The stimuli were interleaved and presented 10 times in a first testing session and 10 more times in a second session 28 days later. Effects of lexicality were observed in both languages, indicating the deployment of lexical representations in word naming. Naming latencies to both words and nonwords reduced across repetitions on Day 1, with those savings being retained to Day 28. Length effects were, however, greater for Spanish than English word naming. Reaction times to long and short nonwords converged with repeated presentations in both languages, but less in Spanish than in English. The results support the hypothesis that reading in opaque orthographies favours the rapid creation and use of lexical representations, while reading in transparent orthographies makes more use of a combination of lexical and sublexical processing.

Impaired Orthographic Processing in Chinese Dyslexic Children: Evidence From the Lexicality Effect on N400

ABSTRACTThis study used the lexicality effects on N400 to investigate orthographic processing in children with developmental dyslexia. Participants performed a Go/No-Go semantic judgment task; three types of stimuli—real characters (RC), pseudocharacters (PC), and noncharacters (NC)—were embedded in No-Go trials. Two types of lexicality effects (RC vs. NC and PC vs. NC) were used to reflect the sensitivity to Chinese orthographic knowledge. In typical developing children, NC elicited a more negative N400 in frontal sites and a less negative N400 in bilateral posterior sites than RC and PC. The reversed lexicality effects in anterior and posterior sites support the dual-mechanism for lexical retrieval. Children with dyslexia revealed a more negative N400 for NC in frontal sites compared with RC, suggesting that they remained sensitive to orthographic familiarity. However, no difference between NC and PC was observed, suggesting a weakness in capturing Chinese orthographic knowledge in children with dyslexia.

Lexical Reading in Dysfluent Readers of German

ABSTRACTDyslexia in consistent orthographies like German is characterized by dysfluent reading, which is often assumed to result from failure to build up an orthographic lexicon and overreliance on decoding. However, earlier evidence indicates effects of lexical processing at least in some German dyslexic readers. We investigated variations in reading style in an eye-tracking paradigm with German dysfluent 3rd and 4th graders. Twenty-six TypFix-readers (fixation counts within the range of 47 age-matched typical readers) were compared with 42 HighFix-readers (increased fixation counts). Both groups showed lexical access: Words were read more efficiently than nonwords and pseudohomophones. TypFix-readers showed stronger reliance on lexical reading than HighFix-readers (smaller length effects for number of fixations and total reading time, stronger lexicality effects for gaze duration, stronger word-pseudohomophone effects for mean saccade amplitude). We conclude that in both groups, sublexical and lexical reading processes were impaired due to inefficient visual-verbal integration.

Early processing of orthographic language membership information in bilingual visual word recognition: Evidence from ERPs

For successful language comprehension, bilinguals often must exert top-down control to access and select lexical representations within a single language. These control processes may critically depend on identification of the language to which a word belongs, but it is currently unclear when different sources of such language membership information become available during word recognition. In the present study, we used event-related potentials to investigate the time course of influence of orthographic language membership cues. Using an oddball detection paradigm, we observed early neural effects of orthographic bias (Spanish vs. English orthography) that preceded effects of lexicality (word vs. pseudoword). This early orthographic pop-out effect was observed for both words and pseudowords, suggesting that this cue is available prior to full lexical access. We discuss the role of orthographic bias for models of bilingual word recognition and its potential role in the suppression of nontarget lexical information.

Growth of Word and Pseudoword Reading Efficiency in Alphabetic Orthographies: Impact of Consistency

Word and pseudoword reading are related abilities fundamental to reading development in alphabetic orthographies. They are respectively assumed to index children’s orthographic representations of words, which are in turn acquired through the underlying “self-teaching mechanism” of alphabetic pseudoword decoding. Little is known about concurrent growth trajectories of these skills in the early grades among children learning different alphabetic orthographies. In the present study, between- and within-group latent growth models of word and pseudoword reading efficiency were tested on data spanning Grades 1 and 2 from learners of the inconsistent English and consistent Czech and Slovak orthographies. Several language-general patterns emerged. Significant growth was observed for both skills in all languages. Growth was faster for word than pseudoword reading efficiency, and strong lexicality effects that increased over time were obtained across languages. Language-specific patterns were also found. In line with predictions about the costs of learning lower-consistency orthographies, readers of English experienced relatively slower growth on both reading skills. However, their lag was smaller, and evident only at the latter two time points for word reading. In contrast, on pseudoword reading, the English group performed considerably less well than their Czech and Slovak peers at every time point. Thus, weaker decoding skills were the main contributor to the larger lexicality effects of the English group. These findings are considered within the frame of recent theorizing about the effect of orthographic consistency on decoding as a self-teaching mechanism in alphabetic reading acquisition.

Analysis of post implantation speech recognition abilities of children with hearing impairment using cochlear implants

<p class="abstract"><strong>Background:</strong> As per census’2011, in India, there are 15, 94,249 children with hearing impairment below 18 years of age. A current method in treating children with hearing impairment is cochlear implantation. The use of cochlear implants aids in improving auditory detection, discrimination, identification and speech recognition. Although, speech recognition is a primary outcome measure in cochlear implantees, there is a paucity of word lists or tests to assess speech recognition abilities, both in local languages in general and Hindi in particular<span lang="EN-IN">. </span></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Methods:</strong> In order to construct word lists comprising of monosyllabic and multisyllabic, easy and hard words, language samples from children (3 - 5 years of age, n = 120) were collected in order to create a database to select stimuli from. The frequency of occurrence and neighborhood density for the words selected from this database was then computed and word lists were constructed. These newly constructed Hindi word lists were administered to 45 cochlear implantees (4.1 to 9 years of age); one year post implantation. Subjects were instructed to listen to the words and repeat them. Responses were scored as number of words correctly repeated<span lang="EN-IN">. </span></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Results:</strong> Cochlear implantees were able to show lexical effects of difficulty, i.e. they achieved higher scores for easy words than those for hard words. However, they were not able to show the same effect for word type<span lang="EN-IN">. </span></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Conclusions:</strong> The newly constructed Hindi word lists appear to be valid lists in assessment of speech recognition abilities of children with hearing impairment using cochlear implants<span lang="EN-IN">.</span></p>