Studying the spatial patterns of ecosystem services and their driving factors is crucial for strengthening ecological management and promoting sustainable environmental development. This research focuses on Beijing as the study area. The InVEST model was applied to analyze the spatial correlation， trade-offs， and synergies of habitat quality， carbon storage， water yield， and soil retention from 2000 to 2020. The analysis utilized methods such as spatial autocorrelation， cold/hot spot analysis， and bivariate spatial autocorrelation analysis. Additionally， the XGBoost-SHAP model was employed to identify the key factors affecting ecosystem services. The results showed that： ① The high-value areas of habitat quality were mainly concentrated in regions with higher terrain and less interference from human activities. Carbon storage exhibited a spatial distribution trend that was high in the northwest and low in the southeast. The high-value areas of water yield were concentrated in urban areas， while the high-value areas of soil conservation were primarily distributed in the southwest and were more scattered in the north. ② Global spatial autocorrelation analysis indicated that the global Moran's I indices for the four ecosystem services all passed the significance test and demonstrated significant high-value aggregation characteristics. ③ There was a significant synergistic relationship between habitat quality， carbon storage， and soil conservation. However， there was a trade-off between water yield and these factors. ④ The XGBoost regression model showed good prediction performance on both the training set and the test set， with the predictive performance on the training set being better than that on the test set. The SHAP model analysis indicated that elevation was the key driving factor affecting the four ecosystem services. Slope significantly affected habitat quality， carbon storage， and soil conservation. Population density mainly affected habitat quality and water yield， while annual precipitation had an important influence on water yield and soil conservation. The research results can provide scientific support for optimizing the spatial patterns of ecosystem services and formulating ecological protection strategies in Beijing.

ABSTRACT Mixed-livestock systems are likely to offer a wide range of ecosystem services that are of great importance for human well-being. To ensure an optimal provision of these services, it is essential to understand their interactions. This study contributes to this field by examining complementarity and trade-offs between ecosystem services in mixed cattle-sheep systems, based on observed farmers’ behaviour. Estimating smooth-coefficient cost functions using French farm-level data and an info-metrics approach, the results show that there is, on average, complementarity between (i) beef and sheep production, (ii) beef production and carbon storage, (iii) beef production and biodiversity, (iv) sheep production and biodiversity, (v) sheep production and carbon storage, and (vi) biodiversity and carbon storage. These results suggest that raising sheep and cattle on the same farm could be promoted to achieve economic gains while providing non-market ecosystem services. The results also show nonlinearities, threshold effects in which the relationships among ecosystem services become competitive, and moderating effects of contextual drivers, which may have relevant policy implications.

ABSTRACT We develop a theoretical foundation for understanding the social drivers of biodiversity loss through an analysis of the pollination crisis. Together, settler colonialism and capitalism have disrupted the relationship between insect pollinators and the flowering plants that they pollinate on a global scale, what we call the ‘Anthophilic rift.’ Settler colonialism reshapes ecologies while capitalism homogenizes landscapes through its drive to make profits and its reliance on technological fixes. The result has been a precarious global dependency on one animal, the western honey bee, for an essential ecosystem service. We conclude with showing how the Anthophilic rift theorization serves as a useful tool for situating various social and ecological processes in understandings of biodiversity loss.

Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs), introduced by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), refer to areas outside formal protected-area networks that deliver effective and enduring in situ biodiversity conservation. This scoping review systematically examined global approaches to identifying and evaluating potential OECMs. Analysing 99 studies covering 694 case studies and 237 000 potential sites, we found that potential OECMs are widespread, particularly in Asia and terrestrial environments, with most initiatives led by the environmental sector. Assessments relied largely on qualitative expert knowledge, with limited application of analytical methods. Although CBD criteria were commonly applied, contributions of related to ecosystem services and socio-cultural values were often overlooked. Effectiveness evaluations showed considerable uncertainty, with over one-third of case studies reporting inadequate evidence of conservation outcomes. The review emphasises the need for standardised assessment methodologies, improved decision-support tools, and socio-cultural integration to enhance OECM recognition, particularly under the 30 × 30 conservation biodiversity target.

The degradation of wetlands and forests is still a threat to the supply and recovery of ecosystem services in the tropics. Studies comparing restoration measures and ecosystem service recoveries are fragmented. This study investigated the spatial extent and drivers of wetland/forest degradation, and assessed the effects of restoration measures on the recovery of ecosystem services and resilient livelihoods. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted targeting households adjacent to restored and unrestored wetland/forest ecosystems. The data was analyzed using a Binary Logistic regression to characterize earlier and recovered ecosystem services between forest and wetland ecosystems. High spatial-resolution optical satellite imagery from the Airbus constellation was obtained and analyzed to examine wetland and forest degradation. Our findings revealed that the spatial extent of degraded land under wetlands and forests decreased between 2023 and 2025. Ecosystem service degradation was primarily driven by chronic poverty, excessive water abstraction, population growth, burning practices, overharvesting of resources, overgrazing, cultivation, infrastructure development, and the invasion of alien species (p < 0.05). The counteractive ecosystem restoration activities undertaken included mobilization and sensitization of communities on wetland restoration, wetland demarcation, revegetation, establishment of flood control measures, and provision of alternative livelihoods (p ≤ 0.05). The multiple direct and indirect ecosystem service recoveries reported were provisioning services (increases in pasture, enhanced livestock production, increased soil productivity, health-related benefits from crops and livestock products) and regulating services (improved water quality/quantity). The ecosystem service recoveries were more significant in the restored wetlands than the forests. The indicators of enhanced ecosystem-based resilient livelihoods included increased household incomes, higher livestock yields, increased crop productivity, improved health from crop/livestock products, improved water quality/quantity, and enhanced scenic beauty and tourism (p < 0.05). The restoration activities in degraded wetland systems had more potential to facilitate full recovery of the wetland ecosystem compared to the absence of interventions. This evidence highlights the need to restore high-ecological-sensitive ecosystems to sustain the delivery of ecosystem services for community and environmental resilience.

As a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Namibia is committed to global efforts aimed at preserving biodiversity and promoting sustainable development. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), sets global biodiversity goals and targets for 2021-2030, addressing urgent biodiversity challenges, and guides international conservation and sustainable use efforts. Target 3 of KM-GBF aims to ensure that by 2030, at least 30% of terrestrial, inland/fresh waters, marine, and coastal areas are effectively conserved and managed (including areas crucial for biodiversity and ecosystem services). It emphasises recognising indigenous and traditional territories, integrating these areas into broader landscapes and seascapes, and ensuring sustainable use aligns with conservation outcomes while respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities. Despite having over 30% of its terrestrial area under some form of protection (when considering national parks, state forests, communal conservancies and community forests), several biomes and vegetation types in Namibia remain underrepresented. An ‘other effective area-based conservation measure’ (OECM) is a geographically defined area, distinct from a protected area, managed to achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for in-situ conservation of biodiversity. OECMs offer opportunities to recognise lands that deliver conservation outcomes, even when their primary use is not strictly for conservation. Recognising OECMs in Namibia, including freehold land that is currently not officially recognised to contribute to conservation efforts, could significantly enhance land conservation, leading to improved outcomes and helping achieve KM-GBF Target 3 in terms of representation and quality of management of terrestrial habitats.

Watersheds provide fundamental hydrological ecosystem services for human well-being and the environment, such as water provisioning, hydrological cycle regulation, and erosion control; however, these services face increasing anthropogenic and climatic pressures. This study assessed individual and combined impacts on the hydrological functionality of the Piuray–Ccorimarca watershed (Cusco, Peru) using a calibrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model, analyzing water yield, soil water storage, and sediment transport across 20 scenarios. An ensemble of 10 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models with bias correction was implemented, integrated with land transformation projections contemplating urban expansion associated with airport development and forest recovery through Payment for Ecosystem Services mechanisms. The results reveal climate change as the dominant driver, generating water yield increases and soil water content improvements primarily due to evapotranspiration decoupling that increases the runoff coefficient. In contrast, land use change produces substantially smaller hydrological effects but critically intensifies sediment yield. Spatial vulnerability analysis identified eight persistently critical sub-basins (20.5% of area) where soil water content emerged as the dominant limiting factor. These findings establish a clear management hierarchy prioritizing climate adaptation over land use interventions, with differentiated strategies required for critical zones demanding structural interventions versus non-critical areas amenable to flexible conservation approaches.

Prosopis juliflora species was introduced in the Kenyan drylands as part of an afforestation program to rehabilitate rangelands and supply fuelwood in the 1980s. However, the species has since spread beyond areas of intervention, altering ecosystem integrity and threatening the livelihoods of pastoralists. This study analysed the spatial and temporal dynamics of P . juliflora in Cherab Ward, Isiolo County, to provide empirical evidence for the management and utilisation of this species. High-resolution satellite imagery was used to assess land-use and land-cover changes between 2017 and 2024, complemented by participatory socio-ecological approaches to elicit pastoralists’ local knowledge of the species' invasion patterns and impacts. The results show that P. juliflora cover increased by approximately 706.1 km 2 between 2017 and 2024. Equally, shrubland and crop land declined by approximately 414.9 km 2 and 122.8 km 2 , respectively. Bare land decreased by 397.4 km 2 , whereas built-up land increased slightly by 26.2 km 2 . These trends were corroborated by maps generated through participatory approaches with communities, which showed that P. juliflora invaded riverine and roadside areas, making it difficult for livestock to access pasture and water in the affected area. These results imply both ecological and socioeconomic consequences, with expected negative impacts on livestock production in the study area. The observed rate of spread of P. juliflora (103%) from 2017 to 2024 indicates that, if the invasion continues unabated, grazing resources in the area will diminish, leading to the loss of ecosystem services and, consequently, impacting pastoral livelihoods. These findings highlight the need for context-specific, co-developed management approaches that integrate spatial evidence with local knowledge to ensure the sustainable control and exploitation of the species, thereby maximising ecological and economic benefits.

Tourism's link to the Sustainable Development Goals has been a continuing emphasis, adding momentum to long-standing efforts to ensure tourism's sustainability. Tourism transport is one of the largest sources of anthropogenic carbon emissions, driving global ecological change with profound consequences for ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Large-scale infrastructure projects such as railway expansion are increasingly promoted for their potential to reduce tourism-related carbon dioxide emissions, yet their spatial ecological impacts on regional carbon cycles and ecosystem services remain poorly understood. This study introduces the concept of Tourism Transport Ecological Efficiency (TTEE) to assess the relationship between human infrastructure, carbon emissions, and ecological sustainability. Using panel data from China's railway expansion between 2011 and 2018, the study provides spatially explicit evidence of how transport infrastructure shapes tourism's ecological footprint. Results show that non-Eastern regions experienced a greater increase in TTEE (8.7%) compared to Eastern regions (5.5%), highlighting regional disparities in tourism transport ecological sustainability. Railway density had a significant positive direct effect on TTEE, particularly pronounced in non-Eastern regions. Additionally, a significant indirect effect of railway density in nearby regions was identified. These findings reveal the interconnected ecological impacts of transport systems and underscore the importance of regionally targeted railway investment strategies. By bridging infrastructure development with ecological processes, this study advances understanding of how tourism transport can be aligned with global carbon reduction goals and ecosystem protection.

ABSTRACT Due to rapid urbanization and population growth in recent years, the global construction sector has expanded significantly, accompanied by serious environmental challenges. One of the most pressing issues is the generation of construction and demolition waste (CDW), which is heterogeneous, widespread and voluminous. This article critically examines the effects of CDW on wetland ecosystems focusing on Diepsloot and Tembisa in Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni Municipalities. Using a mixed-method approach that combines semi-structured interviews and remote sensing techniques, the study demonstrates how CDW disrupts the physical and ecological functions of wetlands. The findings confirm that CDW causes physical alteration of wetland landscapes, disrupting water flow, sedimentation patterns and natural hydrological processes essential for wetland functioning. The accumulation of CDW in wetlands results in water pollution, degrades water quality and contributes to biodiversity loss through habitat destruction and disruption of species’ breeding patterns. Furthermore, obstruction of natural drainage systems exacerbates flooding and further destabilizes these ecosystems. The article underscores the urgent need for improved waste management practices and stronger regulatory enforcement to mitigate the harmful impacts of CDW. Without meaningful reforms, continued wetland degradation threatens critical ecosystem services, including water purification, flood regulation and habitat provision.

Tidal inundation plays a critical role in maintaining the ecosystem services of the Sundarbans mangrove forest. In this study, we configured and calibrated a coupled one-dimensional (1D) river network and two-dimensional (2D) floodplain hydrodynamic model for the Sundarbans in Bangladesh. Model calibration was performed using gauged water levels, inundation maps, and Google Earth (Version 7.3.6) imagery. Using the calibrated model, we assessed potential changes in inundation extent, depth, and duration across the Sundarbans for varying freshwater inflow and tidal height scenarios. Results show variation in inundation extent, depth, and duration spatially and temporarily across the Sundarbans. Inundation is relatively less during February-March (end of the dry season) and high in July-August (mid-wet season). Approximately 3158 km2 (85.1%) of the Sundarbans experiences at least one inundation in March, increasing to about 3658 km2 (98.6%) in July. Although a large proportion of the Sundarbans inundate during daily tidal cycles, the mean inundation depth remains shallow (0.24 to 0.33 m) due to flat topography. The influence of freshwater inflow on inundations is small (<2%). In contrast, the impacts of tidal magnitude are substantial on both inundation extent and depth. These findings provide valuable insights on inundation dynamics for understanding the hydrological and ecological functioning of the Sundarbans.

Aims: The present study aimed to assess employment generation as a direct-use ecosystem service of the Amrabad Tiger Reserve, Telangana, India, and to examine its role in supporting local livelihoods and strengthening conservation outcomes across forest divisions. Study Design: Descriptive, cross-sectional study based on records analysis and field verification. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in the Achampet, Amrabad, and Nagarjuna Sagar forest divisions of the Amrabad Tiger Reserve, Telangana, India, during 2023–2025. Methodology: Employment data were obtained through systematic analysis of Forest Department administrative records, supplemented by field-level verification and structured interactions with divisional officials. Employment was classified into functional categories including forest protection and patrolling, fire prevention and control, wildlife rescue and monitoring, administrative support, vehicle operations, and ecotourism services. Division-wise and category-wise employment distribution was analyzed to assess spatial variation and livelihood significance. Results: The Amrabad Tiger Reserve generated direct employment for 381 individuals, with the Amrabad Division contributing the highest share (234 individuals; 61.4%), followed by Achampet (113; 29.7%) and Nagarjuna Sagar (34; 8.9%). Labour-intensive roles dominated the employment structure, notably base camp helpers (140; 36.7%), Tiger Conservation Force personnel (89; 23.4%), fire watchers (50; 13.1%), and drivers (24; 6.3%). Ecotourism-related employment accounted for 24 positions (6.3%), comprising nature guides and ecotourism drivers. The majority of jobs were accessible to local and forest-dependent communities, indicating strong livelihood linkage. Conclusion: Employment generation represents a significant socio-economic benefit of the Amrabad Tiger Reserve, contributing to livelihood security, reducing reliance on extractive forest use, and fostering community participation in conservation. A key limitation of the study is its reliance on officially recorded employment data, which may underestimate informal or seasonal livelihood opportunities linked to conservation activities.

Abstract Wildland–urban interface (WUI) expansion is accelerating in numerous regions around the world due to increasing amenity‐led migration processes, defined as the movement of people seeking higher environmental quality. While WUI areas are complex social–ecological systems requiring holistic planning and management, they are usually approached from wildfire risk mitigation perspectives that overlook broader people–nature relations. We explored the drivers of WUI expansion and the planning and management practices used to address WUI expansion‐related issues through two case studies: the Roaring Fork Valley (US) and San Martín de los Andes (Argentina). Through semi‐structured interviews, we assessed stakeholders' perceptions regarding current WUI planning and management practices and potential strategies for improvement, identifying opportunities to implement transdisciplinary landscape planning and management approaches in these systems. In particular, we highlighted WUI planning and management aspects that go beyond wildfire mitigation, addressing underlying causes of WUI expansion like amenity‐led migration. The drivers of WUI expansion in the study areas mirror those of amenity‐led migration, with a perceived higher life quality as compared to fully urban areas. The interaction of WUI areas with the tourism industry and the consequent rise in real estate prices increases the demand for housing solutions for both low‐ and high‐income sectors, putting pressure on WUI and wildland areas to serve as sites for new construction. This challenges the conception of amenity‐led migration as a process that solely affects wealthy sectors. In addition, different socioeconomic sectors may have varying vulnerability to WUI‐related risks. To improve WUI planning and management approaches, participants emphasized the need to integrate environmental and ecological considerations, such as changes in ecosystem services provision to identify potential sites for future housing development as well as housing density criteria. This latter idea proved contentious, with different stakeholders advocating for low‐density and high‐density developments, options that should be discussed through participatory processes. This study invites reflection on the benefits of transdisciplinarity (knowledge integration, bridging science and practice and enhancing stakeholder engagement) in the context of WUI social–ecological systems, providing insights into more comprehensive and collaborative approaches to WUI planning and management that consider people–nature relations. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Tree intercropping systems with leguminous cover crops and aromatic plants may provide sustainable yields, which could be improved by beneficial microbes (BMs) and zeolite, while their effects on young tree growth remain unclear. We tested whether such systems enhance early growth in young carob trees compared with conservation tillage (TLG) trees growing under rainfed semi-arid conditions. Intercropping included carobs with (i) Lathyrus ochrus, Trifolium squarrosum, and Lens culinaris combined (CC-System), (ii) Thymbra capitata planted between legumes (CCT-System), and soil amended with (iii) BM (Micosat-F-Olivo) and zeolite. All systems outperformed TLG in annual tree height increase with the CC-System excelling (TLG +13%, CC-System +42%; p < 0.05). The CC-System also significantly outpaced TLG in stem thickening (TLG 62%, CC-System 167%; p < 0.01) with BM and/or zeolite also appearing as beneficial. Improved performance was related to significantly higher dry season soil moisture, while a high L. ochrus abundance reduced thyme survival (p < 0.01). The CCT-System was also found to be less capable in weed suppression during a wet year. Thus, applying our legume intercropping system (with BM/zeolite) represents an effective nature-based solution for enhancing young carob tree growth under rainfed conditions, while adding thyme may somewhat trade productivity for biodiversity and associated ecosystem services.

Tropical mountain ecosystems, driven by monsoonal hydrology and escalating land use, are highly vulnerable to nutrient enrichment, which threatens downstream water quality. This study investigates the spatiotemporal variability and quantitative source apportionment of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), phosphorus (DIP), and silica (DSi) across surface water and groundwater in the Munnar Critical Zone Observatory (CZO), Western Ghats, India. Seasonal monitoring over three monsoon cycles revealed extremely elevated DIN/DIP ratios (up to 299:1), indicating severe phosphorus (P) limitation, reflecting rapid particulate P flushing combined with sustained anthropogenic nitrogen (N) inputs. This N enrichment contributes to a significant riverine DIN flux (3.79 × 103 tons/year), dominating catchment-scale transport. Hydrological analysis confirmed agricultural leaching, with nitrate (NO3-N) peaking in groundwater during the monsoon (6.98 ± 0.63mg/L), while silicate weathering significantly enriched groundwater DSi (15.22 ± 2.81mg/L). The Positive Matrix Factorisation (PMF) model apportioned 70.2% of NO3-N and 81.3% of phosphate (PO43-) to agricultural fertiliser inputs and 100% of NO2-N plus 99.2% of ammonium (NH4-N) to sewage waste; seasonally, fertiliser signals surged during the monsoon, while sewage contributions peaked in the post-monsoon baseflow. Distinct nitrogen cycling pathways were confirmed by the NO3-N/NH4-N ratios (16:1 in surface water vs. 10:1 in groundwater), signifying N loss via denitrification in septic-influenced anaerobic groundwater. These findings, underscoring significant N* excess (up to 107.35), quantify the high eutrophication potential being exported from this anthropogenically stressed headwater system. These results highlight urgent management needs, including optimised fertiliser application timing, restoring riparian buffers, and upgrading sanitation systems to curb nutrient pollution and safeguard downstream ecosystem services.

The Southern Ocean is central to global heat and carbon cycling, connecting all the major ocean basins and regulating Earth’s climate system, and hence providing ecosystem services of global significance. However, its ecosystems are increasingly vulnerable to climate change and localized human-induced pressures, such as (biological) resource extraction, pollution, ship traffic, and tourism. Effective conservation and management require systematic and reliable monitoring frameworks. The Essential Variables concept offers a robust approach to integrate fragmented data, to standardize data collection, and to generate policy-relevant data products enabling informed responses to rapid environmental change. This paper synthesizes the key outcomes of a workshop held in Hobart, Australia, alongside the Southern Ocean Observing System Symposium, in 2023. To advance the adoption, development, and operationalization of Essential Variables tailored to the Southern Ocean, researchers with diverse expertise came together to assess current data gaps in ocean observations and to establish monitoring priorities for marine ecosystems. The workshop provided a dedicated forum to identify key Southern Ocean-specific candidate variables, address methodological challenges, and design pathways for developing a systematic, open, and adaptable framework suited to the region’s unique ecological and environmental conditions. In this paper, we propose Essential Biodiversity Variables that are tailored to the Southern Ocean and are intended to monitor changes in sea ice, planktonic, benthic, and top predator systems. The adoption of Essential Biodiversity Variables specific to the Southern Ocean can enhance our capacity to track biodiversity trends, assess ecosystem health, and inform policy by transforming fragmented data into a cohesive, policy-relevant framework. However, the success of these efforts is only possible by securing sustained funding and enhancing interoperability and collaborations across research groups. This paper as well as the Hobart 2023 workshop are activities endorsed by the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development.

Tallgrass prairie ecosystems in North America sustain globally important plant and animal biodiversity while providing ecosystem services, including biomass production, forage for livestock, and carbon sequestration. Land use change has left less than 1% of North American prairies intact, and opportunities are needed for their restoration. There has been increasing interest in the establishment of prairies on degraded former minelands, where significant challenges exist in reestablishing historic vegetation communities. We examined how the productivity and diversity of mineland prairies were influenced by varying restoration treatments that had been applied nearly a decade previously. We utilized an existing prairie research plot network established using seed mixes containing from one to seven different species and differing fertilization and tillage treatments. We calibrated a non-destructive method to assess prairie biomass and used it to assess the productivity and diversity across 312 research plots. The results showed that, with the exception of C4 grasses, few originally seeded species were present. Significant differences in species richness existed as a function of the interacting effects of seed mix type and fertilization treatment. Unfertilized plots generally had a higher species richness, particularly where larger numbers of species were included in the mixes. Prairie biomass was significantly greater in seed mixes containing big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and was also significantly related to Shannon diversity. Our results suggest that the establishment of (Andropogon gerardii) is fundamental to maximizing the diversity and productivity of mineland prairies, especially in the absence of follow-up management. The results also suggest that caution should be exercised when considering the use of fertilizer, as this may reduce the diversity of native species by favoring competitive non-native species such as some C3 grasses.

Abstract. Intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (IRES) constitute a large fraction of global river networks, provide important ecosystem services, and are increasing in number with climate change. Yet, observing stage and calculating discharge in IRES can be technologically and methodologically challenging. To address this problem, we develop a method to classify relative stage categories from field camera imagery, creating a time series of categorical flow states without the need for direct stage measurements. Specifically, we employ a Logistic Regression model to classify conditions of no water, low water levels, or high water levels for an ephemeral stream located in the upper Russian River watershed of California (US). We trained our algorithm using hourly field camera images from 2017–2023, and validated the image classifications with 15 min continuous stage observations. We then used image classifications to perform quality control on the continuous stage time series, which allowed us to identify when the stream was dry and when the sensor malfunctioned. Next, we compared the image classifications to publicly accessible modeled discharge from the NOAA National Water Model CONUS Retrospective Dataset. We discuss how in-situ monitoring including field cameras and the classification of field camera imagery, combined with surface meteorology and soil moisture observations, provides detailed hydrologic information important for understanding how climate affects IRES. Because the image classification approach is transferable to other ephemeral stream sites equipped only with field cameras, this methodology provides a low-cost option for observing relative stage on sparsely-measured IRES that can augment existing hydrologic modeling used by water managers.

This study analyzes the environmental impact of nickel mining on biodiversity in Indonesia’s Wallacea region, using habitat quality as a proxy. It employs the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) Habitat Quality Model to project current and future habitat quality and degradation. Findings confirm that nickel mining significantly threatens habitat quality. Under a future scenario, 10% (513 km2) of excellent-quality habitat is projected to be lost across the study area. Specifically, mining zones face severe degradation and a future absence of excellent habitat, though protected areas are expected to maintain excellent quality. The study highlights Indonesia’s core dilemma between economic nickel dominance and severe environmental destruction, stressing the need for equitable global risk-sharing. We recommend three strategies: (1) an Integrated Land-Sparing Strategy, (2) Responsible Mining Practices, and (3) Risk Mapping with Equitable Global Risk-Sharing Policies.

An individual, mechanistic and dynamical model to simulate urban tree growth and ecosystem services supply under future scenarios.