Economics Of Biodiesel Production Research Articles

The sustainable prospect of biodiesel production: Transformative technologies, catalysts from bio-wastes, and techno-economic assessment

Energy is the most significant factor influencing a nation’s economic success, social advancement, and human welfare. The increasing demand for oil and other forms of energy has fuelled the need for sustainable alternative energy sources. In this context, energy-providing biofuel materials are widely considered a sustainable alternative. Biodiesel, among other biofuel materials, is currently recognized as a valuable resource for the transportation sector on a global scale. To fulfill the growing demand for biodiesel and to ensure sustainability, the biodiesel synthesis process must be expedited. Therefore, reviewing and upgrading the technological strategies for biodiesel production is vital. The current review paper summarizes recent technological advancements in the biodiesel production process and the process parameters that influence the biodiesel production yield. Also, the significance of eco-friendly biocatalysts derived from waste biomass and waste metals for enhancing biodiesel yield has been highlighted. Furthermore, a techno-economic analysis and life cycle evaluation of different biodiesels are reviewed to examine their economic viability and environmental sustainability when produced using bio-derived catalysts. Overall, it is recognized from recent improvements in biodiesel synthesis that the processes that use catalysts generated from waste sources might considerably facilitate the transition to a more sustainable and economical biodiesel production.

Synthesis of biodiesel from an unique potential oil reserve Delonix regia using a novel biocatalyst bamboo stem – A comparative study by RSM and ANN

Establishing sustainable energy sources is now necessary due to the depletion of fossil fuels and the rising global need for energy. On the other side, burning fossil fuels releases dangerous pollutants into the atmosphere, such as particulates and oxides of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen. People all over the world are accepting a sustainable, renewable, and cost-effective source for the development of biofuels. Identification of a native reserve is a crucial part to hunt a suitable resource for biodiesel production due to its commercial transmission. Biodiesel is a prominent clean energy substitute due to its positive environmental concerns. In this work, a local potential source Delonix regia seeds are used for oil extraction and converted it into biodiesel directly due to its low free fatty acid content. A newly developed bio-nanocatalyst bamboo stem powder was facilitate as a catalyst and characterized by various spectroscopic techniques for efficient biodiesel conversion. Response surface methodology and Artificial Neural Network were employed to predict the optimized process parameters and maximum of around 97% biodiesel yield was achieved utilizing methanol/oil ratio - 0.25 v/v, catalyst dosage - 4 wt%, mixing speed - 950 rpm, reaction temperature - 65ºC and processing time - 95 min. Then, the biodiesel was characterized by gas chromatography to find the fatty acid combination and the properties were analysed for further processing in the automobiles. Moreover, the catalyst reusability was evaluated for economical biodiesel production was established effectively.

Efficient valorization of food waste oils to renewable biodiesel by a Candida antarctica lipase B mutant that catalyzes the ester synthesis reaction in the presence of water

Food waste oil (FWO) is the most suitable raw material for economic biodiesel (BD) production, owing to its low price, sufficient supply, and waste disposal diversion. However, water in FWO inhibits BD production by Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) which must be overcome. Here, a mutant lipase CALB1422 that catalyzes the ester synthesis in the presence of water was developed. The CALB1422 showed 91.1 % and 72.6 % BD conversion rates for soybean oil containing 2 % and 8 % water, respectively; wild-type CALB was inhibited to 29.8 % in the presence of 2 % water. It is presumed that the water attraction of the mutation site freed the catalytic site from water, which was confirmed by molecular dynamics simulation. From crude FWOs, the CALB1422 exhibited up to a 2.1-fold increased BD conversion yield against commercial lipase (Novozym 435). The mutant lipase is an efficient and reusable biocatalyst to produce sustainable BD from waste oils.

Economical Biodiesel Production with Microwave Method Model

Economical Biodiesel Production with Microwave Method Model

A comprehensive analysis of biphasic reaction system for economical biodiesel production process

Biofuels are promising sources of renewable energy, however the economically feasible biofuel process has not yet proposed because of the system complexity and a wide range of process variations. This study explores the practical potential of biodiesel production processes through sequential reactions. Proposed sequential reaction started with xylose dehydration reaction producing furfural followed by furfural hydrogenation, condensation, and hydrodeoxygenation for biodiesel production. Rigorous reaction and separation models were constructed by using reaction experiments and thermodynamic data. The optimal biofuel process has been also proposed through flowsheet optimization. Detail technoeconomic analysis and life cycle assessment are provided to assess the impacts of certain parameters on economics and greenhouse gas emission. The results of this study show that the levelized cost of biodiesel production is $3.66 gal−1, and the corresponding global warming potential (GWP) is 57.18 gCO2eq MJ−1 for the base case. The production cost and GWP can reach $3.26 gal−1 and 29.39 gCO2eq MJ−1 depending on the xylose concentration and the furfural yield. The feed costs of xylose and hydrogen account for more than 80% of the levelized cost of biodiesel production and the steam utility required for refining products takes the largest portion of GWP, ranging from 33% to 65% of the total. These results ascertain that the economic feasibility of biodiesel production can be achievable by using only the sugar components in biomass, and the economics and GWP depend on the feed condition and the use of efficient separation process.© 2022 Elsevier Science. All rights reserved.

Multiple strategies for high-efficiency expression of Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase in Pichia pastoris and production of biodiesel in solvent-free system

With the development of enzymatic routes toward biodiesel production, the process can be concerned in a commercial viewpoint. The main bottleneck is the high cost of lipases. In this study, multiple strategies were used to improve the expression level of Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (TLL) in Pichia pastoris. A recombinant P. pastoris with MFΔ signal peptide, 4 copies of tll gene and co-expression of Vitreoscilla hemoglobin was constructed. Under the optimal culture condition, the TLL activity induced by methanol reached 7770 U/mL. In order to alleviate the inhibitory effect of methanol on cell growth, an additional constitutive promoter PGCW14 was introduced and a one-step methyl ester induction strategy based on the double promoter expression system was adopted. When using biodiesel as inducer, the TLL activity reached 8700 U/mL, which was 29-fold higher relative to the original strain. Moreover, the fermentation supernatant can be used in solvent-free system to produce biodiesel. The highest biodiesel yield of 96 % was achieved after 60 h at 35 °C with TLL concentration of 30 U/g oil, water content of 20 % (w/w) and step-wise addition of methanol (methanol to oil ratio of 4:1). The strains and procedures described here provided a solid foundation for sustainable and economical enzymatic production of biodiesel.

Real textile industrial wastewater treatment and biodiesel production using microalgae

Microalgae are promising feedstocks capable to simultaneously treat wastewater and produce biodiesel. The focus current studyis the treatment of real textile wastewater (RTWW) and successive biodiesel production using microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris). Cultivation was carried out in unsterilized 100% (without dilution) and diluted (25%, 50%, 75%) RTWW. Microalgae cultivation in defined media (BG-11) was set as a control. In results, 50% dilution showed the highest decolorization efficiency (99 ± 0.13%), COD removal (82%), and Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMEs) content (32.62 mg g−1 of biomass). Cultivation was carried out in mixotrophic and heterotrophic conditions to improve microalgae performance. Mixotrophic cultivation showed 99 ± 0.29% decolorization, 94% COD removal, and 61.65 mg g−1 of biomass as FAMEs, which was higher (p < 0.05) than the heterotrophic condition. FAME content and COD removal in mixotrophic conditions were higher (p < 0.05) than in photo-autotrophic conditions; however, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the decolorization efficiency. Thus, it turned out that 50% diluted RTWW under mixotrophic conditions was the most suitable choice to achieve high treatment performance and the FAMEs yield. This study demonstrates that RTWW could be used as a microalgae feedstock without sterilization and less freshwater addition (50% of RTWW). Thus, it can be considered a promising feedstock for economical biodiesel production.

Feasibility Study of Microwave‐Assisted Biodiesel Production from Vegetable Oil Refinery Waste

AbstractVegetable oil refinery waste containing acid oil is used as an inexpensive feedstock for producing biodiesel by microwave‐assisted esterification (MAE) method. Effects of some main variables such as free fatty acid:methanol molar ratio (1:1, 1:5, and 1:10), reaction time (5, 30, and 60 min), and catalyst concentration (1%, 2%, and 3%) on physicochemical properties of produced biodiesel are investigated. Optimum reaction conditions of MAE are free fatty acid:methanol molar ratio of 1:10, reaction time of 60 min, and a catalyst concentration of 3%, while having 95.79% conversion yield. By increasing the conversion yield of the biodiesel, density and color brightness increase, while viscosity and refractive index decrease. There are no significant differences between physicochemical and heating properties of biodiesel produced by MAE and magnetic stirrer esterification (MSE) methods. Meanwhile, energy consumption of MAE method is almost four times lower than that of MSE. MAE as a promising alternative to the conventional esterification method can be considered as an energy‐efficient method for producing biodiesel from inexpensive vegetable oil refinery waste.Practical applications: Acid oil is an inexpensive by‐product of alkali refining in vegetable oil plants that would pollute the environment if not rendered safely. In this study, MAE is used to convert acid oil to biodiesel as a practical process for bringing alkali refining waste into production cycle. Acid oil can provide a reduction in the cost of biodiesel production. In addition, application of energy‐efficient MAE method can facilitate the economical production of biodiesel.

A strategy for lipid production in Scenedesmus sp. by multiple stresses induction

Microalgae are rich source of lipids and are one of the promising feedstocks for biofuel production, whereas enhancement of lipid, carbohydrate, and biomass production is crucial for commercialization of algal biofuels. Nutrients/salinity stresses are important to increase the synthesis of lipid. In the present study, Scenedesmus sp. is treated with a varying combination of sodium nitrate (NaNO3), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4), and sodium chloride (NaCl) to improve lipid accumulation. Results indicate that the modified media comprising of NaCl (100 mM), NaNO3 (0 mM), and K2HPO4 (0.22 mM) (S100N0P0.22) accumulated higher quantities of lipid (385.4 ± 34.2 μg/mg) along with considerable biomass (537.0 ± 22.3 μg/mL), chlorophyll “a” (6.2 ± 0.08 μg/mL), and palmitic acid (32.6%). Apart from biochemical analysis, stress-induced biomarker such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was observed maximum for same combination (10854 μmolH2O2/g), with low lipid peroxidation (3.2 μmol/g). Catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were further studied to monitor the impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on lipid accumulation. This study revealed a better combination in terms of lipid and biomass profile, which can further be investigated for large-scale production. Multi-stress-driven lipid production is one of the significant outputs of the current study, which can further be explored in detail. Insight such interactions may provide directions for economical production of algal biodiesel.

The Perspective of Large-Scale Production of Algae Biodiesel

We have had high expectations for using algae biodiesel for many years, but the quantities of biodiesel currently produced from algae are tiny compared to the quantities of conventional diesel oil. Furthermore, no comprehensive analysis of the impact of all factors on the market production of algal biodiesel has been made so far. This paper aims to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with algal biodiesel, to evaluate its production prospects for the biofuels market. The results of the analysis show that it is possible to increase the efficiency of algae biomass production further. However, because the production of this biodiesel is an energy-intensive process, the price of biodiesel is high. Opportunities for more economical production of algal biodiesel are seen in integration with other processes, such as wastewater treatment, but this does not ensure large-scale production. The impact of state policies and laws is significant in the future of algal biodiesel production. With increasingly stringent environmental requirements, electric cars are a significant threat to biodiesel production. By considering all the influencing factors, it is not expected that algal biodiesel will gain an essential place in the fuel market.

High‐yield lipid production from lignocellulosic biomass using engineered xylose‐utilizing Yarrowia lipolytica

AbstractLignocellulosic biomass shows high potential as a renewable feedstock for use in biodiesel production via microbial fermentation. Yarrowia lipolytica, an emerging oleaginous yeast, has been engineered to efficiently convert xylose, the second most abundant sugar in lignocellulosic biomass, into lipids for lignocellulosic biodiesel production. Yet, the lipid yield from xylose or lignocellulosic biomass remains far lower than that from glucose. Here we developed an efficient xylose‐utilizing Y. lipolytica strain, expressing an isomerase‐based pathway, to achieve high‐yield lipid production from lignocellulosic biomass. The newly developed xylose‐utilizing Y. lipolytica, YSXID, produced 12.01 g/L lipids with a maximum yield of 0.16 g/g, the highest ever reported, from lignocellulosic hydrolysates. Consequently, this study shows the potential of isomerase‐based xylose‐utilizing Y. lipolytica for economical and sustainable production of biodiesel and oleochemicals from lignocellulosic biomass.

Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste Coffee Grounds by Simultaneous Lipid Extraction and Transesterification

We previously optimized a conventional twostep process (TSP) for biodiesel production using waste coffee grounds (WCGs). In the present study, a novel process, one-step direct process (OSDP) comprised of lipid extraction and simultaneous transesterification in a reactor, was evaluated for biodiesel production for WCGs, and compared with TSP. Owing to a relatively low free-fatty acid content (2.3%), an alkaline catalyst, NaOH, was readily used in this process. We found that a mixture of methanol and n-hexane was the best combination for the OSDP. Optimization of OSDP was conducted by statistical technique, followed by one-factor-at-a-time and sensitivity analysis techniques. Using these techniques, 10.8% (gbiodiesel/ g-WCGs) biodiesel yield was achieved at 3.0 wt% of catalyst relative to WCGs, 3.0 mL methanol/g-WCGs, 4.5mL n-hexane/g-WCGs, 45°C, and 9 h of reaction time. Compared to the TSP, the OSDP saved methanol and n-hexane requirement by 69.7% and 67.2%, respectively, while the actual biodiesel yields based on the lipid amount in WCGs were similar in both processes. This study showed that the novel OSDP could be a promising alternative to TSP for economic biodiesel production from WCGs.

Optimization of process variables for the production of biodiesel by transesterification of used cooking oil using lipase from Nile tilapia viscera

Biodiesel synthesis through transesterification of used cooking oil or frying oils using the viscera lipase from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as a low-cost feedstock and catalyst, respectively, was optimized. The influences of operating factors, including methanol/oil molar ratio, enzyme loading, reaction time, type of alcohol, water content and reaction temperature on the yield of biodiesel were investigated. The optimized conditions to achieve maximum biodiesel yield were obtained using an enzyme loading of 30 kUnit, a methanol to oil molar ratio of 4:1, a water content of 3%, a reaction temperature of 45 °C and a 28 h reaction time. Under these optimal operating conditions, the highest biodiesel yield observed was 96.5%. The attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) was applied to ensure the conversion of used cooking oil into biodiesel. The biodiesel characteristics met the specifications set as prescribed by EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751. The results from this investigation show the viability of economical biodiesel production using byproducts as both source and catalyst.

Co-fermentation of a sugar mixture for microbial lipid production in a two-stage fermentation mode under non-sterile conditions

The economical production of biodiesel from lignocellulose requires an effective co-fermentation of lignocellulose-derived sugars, such as glucose and xylose.

Immobilized polymeric sulfonated ionic liquid on core-shell structured Fe3O4/SiO2 composites: A magnetically recyclable catalyst for simultaneous transesterification and esterifications of low-cost oils to biodiesel

In accordance with the need of green and sustainable development, a magnetically recyclable solid catalyst was developed for the transformation of low-cost oils to biodiesel via simultaneous transesterification and esterifications in an efficient and environmentally benign manner. For this aim, the magnetic Fe3O4/SiO2 composites composed of iron oxides as the core and silica as the shell, were prepared, and then polymeric acidic ionic liquid (IL) was immobilized on the magnetic support through radical grafting copolymerization of Brønsted acidic IL, 1-vinyl-3-(3-sulfopropyl)imidazolium hydrogen sulfate, onto the magnetic support. The characterization results showed that the perfect core-shell structured Fe3O4/SiO2 support with good magnetic responsiveness was formed, and the polymeric acidic IL was tethered on the magnetic support. The combination of polymeric acidic IL with magnetic porous nanoparticles could enhance the catalytic activity and favored the separation performance of the catalyst. The solid catalyst exhibited high activities for both transesterification of soybean oil and esterification of free fatty acids generally presented in low-cost oils. Moreover, the catalyst could be simply recovered magnetically and efficiently reutilized for several times without significant loss in its activity, thus allowing its being potentially applicable for green and economic production of biodiesel especially from the low-cost oil feedstocks.

Production and optimization of lipase using Aspergillus niger MTCC 872 by solid-state fermentation

BackgroundLipases are serine hydrolases that degrade triglycerides, an attribute that treasures wide applications in biodiesel production, detergent, chemical industries, etc. The most sought after the application is in the high quality and economical production of biodiesel under mild reaction conditions and simplified product separation. For the said application, fungal lipases are ideal catalysts that could effectively catalyze esterification and transesterification reactions with their specific ability to release fatty acids from 1, 3 positions of acylglycerols.ResultsIn the present work, to facilitate bulk synthesis, lipase production using Aspergillus niger MTCC 872 was studied by solid-state fermentation (SSF). The chosen fungal strain was evaluated for lipase production using a mixture of agro-industrial substrates viz. rice husk, cottonseed cake, and red gram husk in various combinations at flask level. Tri-substrate mixture (rice husk, cottonseed cake, and red gram husk) combined in the ratio of 2:1:1 has shown the maximum lipase activity 28.19 U/gds at optimum cultivation conditions of temperature 40 °C, moisture content 75% (v/w), pH 6.0 and initial spore concentration of 5.4 million spores per mL. Further studies were performed for scale-up of lipase from flask level to lab scale using tray fermenter. Lipase activity was found to be 24.38 U/gds and 21.62 U/gds for 100 g and 1000 g substrate respectively.ConclusionThis is the first report on the production of lipase from Aspergillus niger MTCC 872 using tri-substrate mixture of rice husk (RH), cottonseed cake (CSC), and red gram husk (RGH). Moreover, comparison between individual, binary, and tri-substrate mixture was carried out for which the highest lipase activity was observed for tri-substrate mixture. In addition, comparable results were found when scale-up was performed using tray fermenter. Thus, the current work signifies usage of agro-industrial residues as substrates for enzyme production by solid-state fermentation process as an effective alternative to submerged fermentation for industrial applications.

Comparative studies on the production of biodiesel from shea nut oil by acid catalyzed and supercritical transesterification processes

Shea nut oil has been confirmed as a feasible and sustainable biofuel source and may be used to improve the economics of biodiesel production. However, there is need to evaluate the best route for achieving optimum yield and best quality. Therefore, two processes were investigated in this study - acid catalyzed and supercritical transesterification processes. Shea nut seeds were collected, its oil mechanically extracted thereafter, and the physiochemical properties were analyzed. In the acid catalysed process, shea nut oil was transesterified into biodiesel using ethanol with sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) as a catalyst. This gave a conversion of between 55wt% and 90wt% for temperatures between 20 o C and 90 o C. The optimum ratio of ethanol/oil was found to be 30:1 at 80 o C for reaction time of 120 minutes. While for supercritical transesterification process (without acid), the conversion was between 55wt% and 82.5wt% at temperatures between 220 o C and 300 o C. However, the optimum condition here was 20:1 ethanol/oil molar ratio, at 240 o C and 24 minutes reaction time. The biodiesel properties produced were evaluated and most of these conformed to Biodiesel Standard, ASTM D- 6751 and the international standard, EN-14214. Also, the properties of Biodiesel produced by supercritical process seem better compared to that from the acid catalyzed process in line with the ASTM D – 6751 and EN-14214 standards, thus a better option for diesel engines making supercritical transesterification a preferred option for biodiesel production from shea nut oil. Keywords: Sheanut, biodiesel, transesterification, acid-catalysed, supercritical, conversion

An Overview of Recent Research in the Conversion of Glycerol into Biofuels, Fuel Additives and other Bio-Based Chemicals

The depletion of fossil fuels has heightened research and utilization of renewable energy such as biodiesel. However, this has thrown up another challenge of significant increase in its byproduct, glycerol. In view of the characteristics and potentials of glycerol, efforts are on the increase to convert it to higher-value products, which will in turn improve the overall economics of biodiesel production. These high-value products include biofuels, oxygenated fuel additives, polymer precursors and other industrial bio-based chemicals. This review gives up-to-date research findings in the conversion of glycerol to the above high-value products, with a special focus on the performance of the catalysts used and their challenges. The specific products reviewed in this paper include hydrogen, ethanol, methanol, acetin, glycerol ethers, solketal, acetal, acrolein, glycerol carbonate, 1,3-propanediol, polyglycerol and olefins.

Development of Carbon-Based Solid Acid Catalysts Using a Lipid-Extracted Alga, Dunaliella tertiolecta, for Esterification.

Novel carbon-based solid acid catalysts were synthesized through a sustainable route from lipid-extracted microalgal residue of Dunaliella tertiolecta, for biodiesel production. Two carbon-based solid acid catalysts were prepared by surface modification of bio-char with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and sulfuryl chloride (SO₂Cl₂), respectively. The treated catalysts were characterized and their catalytic activities were evaluated by esterification of oleic acid. The esterification catalytic activity of the SO₂Cl₂-treated bio-char was higher (11.5 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹∙g Cat. ⁻¹) than that of commercial catalyst silica-supported Nafion SAC-13 (2.3 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹∙g Cat. ⁻¹) and H₂SO₄-treated bio-char (5.7 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹∙g Cat. ⁻¹). Reusability of the catalysts was examined. The catalytic activity of the SO₂Cl₂-modified catalyst was sustained from the second run after the initial activity dropped after the first run and kept the same activity until the fifth run. It was higher than that of first-used Nafion. These experimental results demonstrate that catalysts from lipid-extracted algae have great potential for the economic and environment-friendly production of biodiesel.

A novel strategy of biodiesel production from wet microalgae by direct saponification–esterification conversion (DSEC)

Abstract Microalgae has become a potential resource of biodiesel in recent years for its fast growth, non-food source, and CO2 capture ability. However, efficient and economic production of biodiesel from microalgae is still a challenge. In this study, we presented a novel strategy of direct saponification–esterification conversion (DSEC) from wet microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris) to biodiesel and its associated kinetic model. The process was accomplished with two consecutive additions into wet algae. Firstly, addition of NaOH/methanol solution, lipids including triglycerides (TG) and free fatty acids (FFA) of wet algae were released from disrupted algae and primarily converted into soaps by means of saponification. Then with further HCl/methanol addition, soaps were acidified into FFA and esterified into fatty acid methyl ester (biodiesel). The experimental results supported the proposed mechanism and observed several advantages of DSEC process. Primarily, DSEC eliminates lipid extraction/purification step in the conventional process, which usually accounts for more than half of production cost. Secondly, compared with the alkali catalyzed transesterification process, DSEC completely alleviates the restriction of incapable of dealing with high content of water and FFA. On the other hand, compared with acid catalyzed transesterification process, the production time of DSEC was only a fraction, less than 15 mins.