Economic Integration Research Articles

ABSTRACT The launch of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area (‘GBA’) initiative has drawn attention to legal harmonization in the region. A close examination reveals that the GBA initiative aims to achieve only a modest form of legal harmonization to mitigate legal frictions that impede the area’s economic integration and development rather than increasing the similarity among legal rules in the three places. The GBA legal harmonization process so far has only involved coordinated actions while overlooked those uncoordinated mechanisms. This article includes a case study of the Macau Trust Law enacted in 2022. Although the Macau Trust Law is not a legislative project explicitly introduced under the GBA initiative, its drafting process, statutory provisions and potential implications provide crucial lessons for the GBA legal harmonization. The case study demonstrates that legal convergence is important for the area’s economic integration and future development even though it does not fall within the objectives of the current GBA policies. The GBA initiative should not neglect the role of legal transplant, which does not only enhance legal convergence but also drive mutual improvements and innovation of laws through legal divergence. The GBA’s unique ‘one country, two systems and three jurisdictions’ structure creates a legal laboratory in which iterative legal transplantation operates as a bottom-up mechanism of harmonization, markedly different from the top-down legal unification model exemplified by the European Union. In a tightly integrated region such as the GBA, ‘semi-coordinated’ lawmaking mechanisms – those lying between fully centralized and wholly spontaneous efforts – can be created to effectively promote legal harmonization.

ABSTRACT With forced migration at an all-time high, language learning is a common area of focus in discussions of social and economic integration. This ethnographic case study explores an educational space that aims to support the aspirations of adult migrants to Norway, including, but not limited to, language learning. Drawing on participant observation and language portrait interviews, we explore whether and how language learning and integration are facilitated within Åpen Møteplass (Open Meeting Place), a free weekly program in Oslo. We found that Åpen Møteplass contributes to both language learning and integration by functioning as a community of practice characterized by informal language socialization and translanguaging practice in which diverse participants can work together to develop cultural knowledge and negotiate their place in Norwegian society, and where immigrant learners can also begin to identify as insiders, experts, and legitimate speakers.

This article develops a policy framework for designing inclusive trade agreements that actively reduce poverty within an increasingly unequal global economy. Drawing on classical and modern trade theories, it argues that while openness raises aggregate income through specialization, productivity, and variety, distributional effects depend on institutional design and implementation. A review of empirical evidence from developing and advanced economies shows that trade can improve welfare for low-income groups when tariff reforms target essential goods, when export growth occurs in labor-intensive sectors, and when small firms can access markets with lower compliance costs. However, existing scholarship rarely connects specific treaty provisions to measurable poverty outcomes. The article proposes a four-channel framework covering prices, jobs, entry, and resilience, which are linked to concrete indicators and applied across major agreements, including AfCFTA, USMCA, and the EU’s GSP+. It concludes that enforceable labor standards, simplified trade procedures, targeted development aid, and gender-responsive digital rules can make globalization more equitable when paired with capacity building and transparent monitoring.

ABSTRACT U.S. adult and workforce education (AWE) policy was created to support improved economic integration and social mobility for vulnerable populations. The primary framing of legislation has been articulated in terms of helping individuals become more financially self-sustaining (and thus not an economic burden on the state and wider society) through the selection of various educational and career pathways. The purpose of this paper is to explore the political framing and rationale of AWE policies through the theoretical lens of individualisation of social risk, using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to examine national-level policy. Individualisation, as a theoretical concept, refers to structural changes to the relations between individuals and society where the notion of ‘the individual’ takes precedence over society. Opportunities, dangers, and life’s uncertainties must be negotiated by individuals, instead of by traditional social institutions. Core aspects of the theory are presented and four examples to illustrate how this ‘individualization’ rationale is embedded in AWE policy. We argue that this ‘individualization’ of public programs may become a form of reverse accountability that moves social risks away from the state and employers by offloading the burdens onto the individuals who have the fewest resources to ‘choose’ and manage the risks.

The widespread use of single-use plastics, particularly polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), has resulted in severe environmental pollution due to their durability and resistance to degradation. This report reviews current degradable alternatives to conventional polyolefins and strategies for enhancing their breakdown in natural and managed environments. Mechanisms of abiotic and biotic degradation are examined alongside the influence of environmental factors and standardized testing protocols. Commercially available biodegradable polymers—such as polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), starch-based plastics, cellulose derivatives, chitosan, and protein-based materials—are evaluated for their sources, degradation behavior, applications, scalability, and limitations. In addition, modification techniques for PE and PP, including copolymerization, pro-degradant additives, blending with biodegradable fillers, surface functionalization, enzyme-assisted degradation, and photocatalytic additives, are critically assessed for their potential to reduce environmental persistence. Key challenges such as performance trade-offs, incomplete degradation, ecotoxicity, cost, scalability, and end-of-life management are discussed within the context of circular economic integration. This report concludes with future research directions aimed at developing cost-effective, high-performance materials that degrade completely under real-world conditions while minimizing ecological impacts.

Ukraine and its regions have endured 13 years of aggression from the Russian Federation, resulting in catastrophic consequences across all spheres of life: economic (destruction of critical infrastructure, industrial, and agricultural facilities), environmental (environmental pollution and threats to nuclear safety), social (crises in education and healthcare, increasing psychological trauma), and demographic (human losses and humanitarian crises), among others. The recovery of Ukraine requires a comprehensive and innovative approach focused on "green" transformation. This will foster economic growth, job creation, energy efficiency, energy independence, and integration into the European and global spaces while improving the quality of life.

Crises and periods of uncertainty can have profound effects on economies. Periods of uncertainty require economic actors to reconsider their production decisions, consumption decisions and behavior patterns. Since crisis periods are considered extraordinary periods, consumption, saving and investment preferences may change direction during these periods. Crisis and uncertainty processes, in which economic integrity is absent and systematic functioning is damaged, cause decision makers to search for new integration. Crises with global effects have much wider repercussions and may necessitate the search for global solutions. Economic policies implemented during these periods are of vital importance to ensure economic stability and minimize the negative effects. This study is based on the assumption that crisis and uncertainty have effects on the individual, society, economy and the policies implemented. In this framework, the effects of the policies implemented on society were questioned in order to produce solutions without giving up the sustainable approach and perspective. In addition, structural changes and policies put into practice were evaluated in this study in which the impact areas of the relationship between uncertainty and crisis were investigated.

Introduction. Since its establishment in 2015, the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) – uniting Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and the Russian Federation – has guaranteed the free movement of goods, services, capital and labour; today it has become a key instrument of economic integration, especially for Russia. The joint digitalisation of EAEU economies is viewed as a strategic avenue for deepening integration and mitigating external disintegration pressures. Over the past decades, the rapid spread of digital platforms as a new business model with powerful network effects has radically reshaped traditional industries. The present study offers a comprehensive analysis of digitalplatform phenomena within the context of Eurasian integration, addressing both theoretical aspects (definitions, classifications and core properties) and practical aspects (drivers of formation, current state and prospects for platformeconomy development in EAEU member states). Materials and methods. The research employs a mixed approach that integrates theoretical and empirical analysis of digitalplatform development in the EAEU. The theoretical section reviews the essence of digital platforms alongside diverse scholarly approaches to their definition and classification. The empirical section examines the preconditions for platform formation, the current state of the platform economy across the Union, the results achieved to date, persisting challenges and prospects for further growth. The study draws upon the author’s dissertation materials as well as peerreviewed Russian and international sources, including statistical reports and analytical reviews, ensuring the reliability and relevance of the findings. Results of the study. The rapid emergence of the EAEU platform economy has been driven by global digitalisation trends, lower transaction costs in ecommerce compared with traditional trade, rising digital literacy, broad Internet penetration and accessible bigdata analytics tools. Platform development in the region has progressed in stages and, by the mid2020s, has reached a mature growth phase. A pronounced development asymmetry was identified: Russia leads the platform sector, whereas smaller economies (e.g., Armenia and Kyrgyzstan) lag behind in coverage, infrastructure and investment. Discussion and conclusion. In recent years digital platforms have shown steady positive dynamics in the EAEU, becoming an engine of regional economic integration and sustaining the expansion of mutual trade even under external pressure. Nevertheless, several bottlenecks hamper further progress, including regulatory fragmentation, infrastructure gaps and intercountry disparities. Coordinated measures are required – notably the adoption and implementation of a supranational Agreement on Electronic Commerce to harmonise platform rules, coupled with continued investment in core connectivity and logistics infrastructure. These steps are expected to create, in the near future, a unified EAEU digital space where platforms weave national markets into a single ecosystem, enhancing overall competitiveness and resilience to external shocks.

International sanctions and export restructuring: How economic integration among BRICS nations drives trade transformation in Russia

Research Problem: Pan-Africanism has long served as the ideological foundation for Africa’s pursuit of unity, self-determination, and collective development. The establishment of the African Union (AU) in 2002 was intended to advance this vision beyond the sovereignty-centered limitations of the Organisation of African Unity. However, the enduring tension between Pan-African ideals and the strict defense of state sovereignty continues to undermine the African Union’s capacity to deliver on its integration agenda. The central problem lies in the reluctance of member states to cede authority to supranational institutions, thereby constraining the Union’s ability to act decisively in matters of peace, security, and economic cooperation. Methods/Theory: The study adopts a qualitative, analytical methodology. Content analysis is employed to evaluate the AU's sovereignty–integration dilemma. Similarly, the research employs intergovernmentalism and neo-functionalism as theoretical frameworks. Results: Results from the research study reveals that while sovereignty protection remains dominant, incremental integration in functional areas such as trade shows potential for positive spillovers. Conclusion: The study concludes that Pan-Africanism is hindered by sovereignty but not obsolete. Key Contribution to Knowledge: This research contributes to debates on African integration by bridging theory and practice, highlighting how sovereignty paradoxes both constrain and create opportunities for gradual functional integration within the AU framework. Recommendation: The study It recommends reconceptualising sovereignty for collective action, strengthening AU institutions, deepening economic integration, amplifying Africa’s global voice, reinvigorating Pan-African identity through citizen participation, inclusive governance, visionary leadership, and enhanced regional solidarity to address contemporary challenges and harness Africa’s collective potential for sustainable development.

ABSTRACT This paper examines how Mexico's upper‐middle classes construct credentialized aspirations —intergenerational, place‐based strategies of class reproduction centered on the pursuit of globally recognized educational and professional credentials. Drawing on 45 life‐history interviews with Mexican professionals in Vancouver and Seattle and their parents in Monterrey, the study situates these strategies within the broader context of North American economic integration since NAFTA. Rather than engaging in family migration projects, upper‐middle‐class families invest in elite international education to cultivate cosmopolitan dispositions and transnational networks from an early age, enabling their children to navigate ‘highly skilled’ migration regimes in the United States and Canada. I develop the concept of credentialized aspirations to describe how the iterative accumulation of credentials—degrees, language proficiency, and professional experience—functions as a mechanism for sustaining social mobility under conditions of neoliberal uncertainty. This analysis reveals how regional integration, private education infrastructures, and meritocratic migration policies intersect to shape the geographies of privilege and mobility in North America. By foregrounding the Mexican case, the paper advances population geography scholarship on aspirations and mobility, demonstrating how elite reproduction operates through localized practices that are deeply entwined with transnational imaginaries of success.

ABSTRACT The global focus on infrastructure development has placed the management of material flows at the centre of geopolitics. For China, this has involved large-scale, global port investments as part of its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which have been premised on an expansion in extra-territorial forms of infrastructural development to bolster global economic integration with strategic geopolitical targets. This article argues for the need to uncover the underlying processes driving Chinese capitalism outwardly to make a balanced assessment of the geopolitical implications of Chinese investments in ports globally. Using the concept of logistical fixes, this article showcases how Chinese investments in global port infrastructure are used to create, correct and direct capital circulation processes to buttress China’s integration model with the global economy and sustain its economic growth model. We highlight the relevance of these variegated relations and motives by examining three Chinese investments into global port infrastructure, respectively the Chancay Multipurpose Port in Peru, the Vietnam International Container Terminal Port in Vietnam and the Valencia Port in Spain. By construing Chinese port investments and the BRI as a variegated process, it is possible to develop a better analytical grasp of the diverse strategies, objectives and spatial dynamics underlying these initiatives. We can thereby move beyond viewing China's BRI as a monolithic expansion strategy and instead analytically foreground the variegated strategic considerations, functional challenges and governance dilemmas that underpin Chinese port investments across regional and global contexts.

Purpose. Establishing the link between the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and inclusive growth, taking into account the concept of Pareto improvement. Methodology. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis with qualitative evaluation, to assess how the BRI influences inclusive growth at national and regional levels. Findings. Existing research shows a growing intersection between inclusive growth theory and the economic effects of the BRI. Empirical results suggest that BRI participation is associated with shifts in GDP, inequality, trade volume, infrastructure investment, and social development. However, benefits of the BRI initiative are unevenly distributed across regions. Case studies also demonstrate significant variation in economic impact depending on the region. Thematic studies reveal regional differences: for instance, Kazakhstan, Southeast Asian, and African countries report varying outcomes depending on project scale, sector, and governance. Comparisons between BRI and non-BRI countries suggest higher gains for the former, though the results represent optimistic estimates rather than guarantees of Pareto optimality. Originality. This study introduces a unique framework by interpreting the BRI as a model of inclusive globalization rooted in Pareto improvement. In contrast to traditional development models, the BRI is positioned as a mechanism fostering open, inclusive, fair, balanced and mutually beneficial economic globalisation. The study offers a new perspective, according to which the BRI initiative improves the welfare of participating countries without worsening the economic situation of other states. Thus, the Belt and Road Initiative is seen as a global mechanism for achieving Pareto improvement, promoting inclusive growth without compromising third parties. Practical value. The work has practical value due to its evaluating the BRI through the lens of Pareto improvement, highlighting its potential in promoting global inclusive growth. Based on empirical data and real-life examples, the study demonstrates how the initiative contributes to economic development, the reduction of regional disparities, and international cooperation. Importantly, these benefits are achieved without harming any participating country, making the initiative an example of mutually beneficial economic integration and an effective policy tool for global development.

Purpose This paper aims to examine the implementation of investment facilitation commitments under the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Investment Protocol. Its purpose is threefold: first, to analyse the core investment facilitation obligations established under the AfCFTA and compare them with global standards; second, to identify key implementation challenges facing African states in fulfilling these commitments; and third, to evaluate necessary technical assistance and capacity-building mechanisms to support effective implementation. By exploring these dimensions, the paper aims to provide practical insights for policymakers, practitioners and researchers engaged in advancing Africa’s economic transformation through enhanced investment flows and regional integration. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses doctrinal legal analysis to examine the implementation challenges and opportunities of investment facilitation commitments under the AfCFTA Investment Protocol. The methodology involves systematic analysis of primary legal texts, including the AfCFTA Investment Protocol and related regional frameworks, alongside comparative examination of the WTO Investment Facilitation for Development Agreement. The paper synthesises evidence from regional and national case studies to identify emerging best practices and implementation challenges. The research framework considers three dimensions: regulatory frameworks, institutional mechanisms and technical capacity needs, while evaluating potential solutions through analysis of technical assistance frameworks and implementation experiences across African states. Findings The paper reveals that effective implementation of AfCFTA investment facilitation commitments faces significant challenges including institutional capacity constraints, infrastructure and technology gaps and political economy factors. Regional approaches demonstrate the value of coordinated implementation but highlight persistent gaps between formal commitments and practical implementation. Successful national implementation strategies share common features: strong political commitment, effective institutional coordination and strategic use of digital technologies. The research identifies emerging best practices including phased implementation approaches, stakeholder engagement mechanisms and robust monitoring frameworks. Technical assistance needs to be better coordinated and demand-driven to address implementation challenges equitably across countries with varying capacities. Research limitations/implications This study primarily relies on doctrinal analysis and publicly available information about implementation efforts, which may not fully capture on-the-ground realities or informal implementation mechanisms. The research is limited by the recency of the AfCFTA Investment Protocol’s adoption, with implementation still in early stages, offering limited empirical evidence on outcomes. Future research would benefit from quantitative assessment of implementation impacts, comparative analysis of institutional models and deeper investigation of digital technology applications in investment facilitation. The findings nonetheless provide valuable guidance for policymakers designing implementation strategies and technical assistance programmes that address the identified challenges. Practical implications The findings offer several practical implications for AfCFTA implementation. Policymakers should prioritise establishing dedicated institutional mechanisms for coordinating investment facilitation at continental, regional and national levels. A continental implementation roadmap with clear milestones and phased approaches would accommodate varying country capacities. Digital solutions should be leveraged to enhance transparency and streamline procedures, while addressing infrastructure gaps. Technical assistance providers should adopt more coordinated, demand-driven approaches based on comprehensive needs assessments. Private sector engagement mechanisms should be formalised to ensure facilitation measures respond to investor needs. These strategies can transform investment facilitation from technical reform to a transformative agenda for Africa’s economic integration. Social implications Effective implementation of investment facilitation under the AfCFTA has significant social implications across Africa. By enhancing investment flows and economic integration, successful implementation can create employment opportunities, particularly for youth, women and vulnerable groups as recognised in Article 29 of the Protocol. Streamlined administrative procedures can reduce corruption opportunities, promoting more equitable access to investment opportunities for domestic entrepreneurs. However, implementation must balance efficiency with safeguarding public interests. The paper highlights the importance of inclusive stakeholder engagement to ensure investment facilitation contributes to sustainable development outcomes rather than merely benefiting large investors or exacerbating existing economic inequalities. Originality/value This paper provides quite a comprehensive analysis of implementation challenges and strategies for investment facilitation commitments under the recently adopted AfCFTA Investment Protocol. While existing literature examines investment facilitation conceptually, this research contributes original insights on the unique African continental context and implementation dynamics. The paper’s value lies in its synthesis of emerging best practices from regional and national experiences, detailed examination of technical assistance frameworks and practical policy recommendations for various governance levels. This comprehensive approach offers significant value to policymakers, development practitioners and researchers seeking to advance Africa’s economic integration through enhanced investment facilitation.

Under the conditions of globalization, the economies of countries have become excessively interdependent. Small, open-economy, developing countries, including Georgia, are much more dependent on the foreign economic policies pursued by states with large economies. One of the effective tools for reducing this dependence is the participation of countries with small, developing economies in such economic integrations. The study aims to identify the challenges expected in the field of BRICS expansion towards the Black Sea region. The research used methods of collecting, grouping, and analyzing materials, based on which the problems and prospects of Georgia's membership in BRICS+ integration were determined. The research identified the potential risks of Georgia's membership in BRICS, the avoidance of which will contribute to increasing the benefits that Georgia will receive from joining this integration, as well as increasing the potential for equal trade and economic cooperation with this group.

Environmental management in Indonesia is an important part of the legal system that aims to protect biodiversity and ecosystems. This study highlights animal quarantine policies as part of the conservation of biological natural resources based on Law No. 5 of 1990 concerning Conservation of Biological Natural Resources and their Ecosystems and Law No. 32 of 2009 concerning Protection and Management of the Environment. In the context of globalization and economic integration, the quarantine system is required to be more adaptive and oriented towards comprehensive protection of national biological potential from external threats such as diseases and pests. Quarantine policies must also integrate a socio-cultural approach, considering the strong ties between local culture and environmental sustainability. The symbolic interactionism approach is used in this study to reveal the symbolic meaning of law as a response to social phenomena. It was found that existing quarantine regulations do not fully reflect ecological justice, because they still focus solely on technical aspects. Therefore, a policy reconstruction is needed that is more sensitive to socio-cultural conditions and the principles of ecological justice.

The deepening of global economic integration has promoted the gradual convergence of accounting standard systems across countries, particularly regarding reforms in the critical field of revenue recognition. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) have undergone continuous revisions and been widely adopted worldwide. China’s accounting standards have gradually converged with international standards over the past few years. Notably, in 2017, the Ministry of Finance issued Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 14 - Revenue, which has been implemented since 2018. The introduction of this new revenue standard marks a major transformation of China’s accounting system. This study aims to explore how the new revenue standard affects the quality of corporate financial information. Specifically, from the perspective of accounting conservatism, it analyzes how enterprises balance flexibility and conservatism while complying with the new standard to ensure the reliability and relevance of financial information. This research holds significant theoretical and practical value for improving the theory of revenue recognition, enhancing the transparency of corporate financial reports, and providing policy recommendations for regulatory authorities.

ABSTRACT Inbound tourism is crucial for generating foreign exchange and promoting economic growth. However, it is sensitive to several economic and non-economic factors. Using annual panel data from 2007 to 2019, this study investigates the economic, environmental, and institutional factors that influence inbound international tourism in the world’s top 20 tourist destinations. A key contribution of this research is the inclusion of institutional quality and non-renewable energy consumption in the tourism-related literature. The Granger Causality Test, in conjunction with the panel ARDL model, is applied to examine the data. The Kao confirmed the existence of a long-run relationship among the variables. Results under the economic tourism dimension indicate that economic growth, trade openness, and population growth have a significant impact on inbound tourism. In contrast, the impact of inflation was found to be negative. Similarly, carbon emissions and non-renewable energy consumption both show notable negative effects in relation to environmental tourism, indicating that environmental degradation deters international tourists. In the institutional tourism dimension, governance quality, control on corruption, political stability, and the absence of violence/terrorism all have a positive impact on tourist arrivals, emphasizing the role of a strong institutional framework in attracting international tourists. Findings demonstrate the multifaceted nature of the demand for international travel and highlight the significance of sustainable economic policies, environmental protection, and institutional integrity in fostering sustained tourism growth.

Digital Rupiah, initiated under Bank Indonesia's Project Garuda, represent a pivotal advancement in the development of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs). This financial innovation has the potential to strengthen regional economic growth by improving payment systems, enhancing the effectiveness of monetary policy, and fostering economic integration, which are essential for provincial development. However, empirical studies examining the regional impacts of CBDCs remain limited. This research addresses this gap by analyzing the potential effects of Digital Rupiah implementation on the economic growth of Sumatra’s provinces. Using quarterly data from Q2 2020 to Q1 2024, the study investigates how these three factors influence economic growth of ten provinces in Sumatra. The results, based on Ordinary Least Squares estimation, indicate that North Sumatra demonstrates the highest potential for economic advancement, with all three variables exerting significant positive effects. These findings provide valuable insights for policy design and strategies to support post-pandemic recovery.

Energy efficiency is a critical factor in the transition toward sustainable energy systems and the decarbonization of industrial processes. In this context, the recovery of residual process energy represents a key strategy. This study presents a case analysis of a Brazilian carbo-chemical plant, where calcination furnaces release exhaust gases containing both thermal and chemical energy. These gases, generated by six furnaces, have a total flow rate of 1.36 kg/s at 800 °C and a volumetric composition of 26% H 2 , 4.2% CH 4 , and 5% CO, among other components, resulting in a total energy potential of 8.30 MW—comprising 1.63 MW of thermal and 6.67 MW of chemical energy. The main objective of this study is to assess the potential for recovering this energy through various cogeneration system configurations based on steam cycles, aimed at process thermal oil heating and electricity generation. Simulations were conducted using IPSEpro 8.0, and system performance was evaluated according to the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics to identify opportunities for optimization. The results show that, in addition to providing 70 kW of useful heat for oil heating, the system can deliver up to 2.65 MW of electrical power. The energy and exergy efficiencies of the steam cycles reach 43.35% and 80.45%, respectively, while the overall system achieves energy and exergy efficiencies of 32.8% and 32.03%. Exergy analysis highlights areas for improvement, particularly in combustion and heat exchange, due to high irreversibilities in combustion chambers and boilers (up to 821.50 kW and 3384.29 kW, respectively) and recoverable heat present in boiler exhaust gases. Environmental analysis indicates a significant reduction in stack gas temperatures (66%–77% relative to the initial 800 °C) and the combustion of residual fuel components, especially CH 4 , which markedly decreases thermal and chemical pollution. Quantitatively, electricity generation reduces grid dependency, preventing up to 3234 tons of CO 2 emissions per year. These findings demonstrate a considerable theoretical estimable potential for residual energy recovery, yielding substantial improvements in efficiency and environmental impact mitigation. Furthermore, an optimized technological approach could achieve energy efficiencies of up to 50%, producing 40% more electricity. These results highlight the importance of further studies, particularly to evaluate economic feasibility and potential integration into carbon markets.