Economic Instruments Research Articles

Integrating Carbon Sequestration and Biodiversity Impacts in Forest Ecosystems: Concepts, Case Studies, and Policy Strategies

The challenges of climate change, biodiversity loss, and land use are deeply interconnected, requiring integrated solutions. This paper (Alam et al. 2023) summarizes findings from 11 contributions in a special issue of AMBIO, where the authors, as guest editors, led discussions on topics such as integrated modelling, spatial prioritization, mass-balance studies, Earth Observation (EO) methods, research infrastructure, and the assessment of policy measures and economic compensation schemes. The studies cover various spatial scales, from site-specific analyses to broader European contexts. We present an overview of key conclusions, highlight general insights, and suggest areas for future research and methodological advancement. The papers in this special issue aim to address the following questions: How can areas important for both carbon (C) and biodiversity be identified in forests, and are there synergies or trade-offs between them? Can climate and biodiversity policy goals be met with current land-use trends and climate impacts? How do spatial, temporal, and resolution uncertainties, along with ecosystem interactions, affect evaluation outcomes? How should measurement systems and ecosystem research infrastructures be optimally developed? How can EO and deep learning techniques help develop indicators and detect landscape changes? How should economic instruments support integrated C and biodiversity policies? How are forest policy coherence and knowledge production linked? How can areas important for both carbon (C) and biodiversity be identified in forests, and are there synergies or trade-offs between them? Can climate and biodiversity policy goals be met with current land-use trends and climate impacts? How do spatial, temporal, and resolution uncertainties, along with ecosystem interactions, affect evaluation outcomes? How should measurement systems and ecosystem research infrastructures be optimally developed? How can EO and deep learning techniques help develop indicators and detect landscape changes? How should economic instruments support integrated C and biodiversity policies? How are forest policy coherence and knowledge production linked? We identify three key interconnected themes based on the individual contributions. First, we analyse the evaluation and modelling of C and greenhouse gas (GHG) processes in forested landscapes. Studies show that achieving C neutrality at national and regional levels requires both reducing anthropogenic GHG emissions and maintaining C sinks through moderate forest harvesting policies. Mitigation potential and land-use strategies vary by region, and the C neutrality gap can be quantified using the techniques developed in these papers (Forsius et al. 2023, Holmberg et al. 2023, Junttila et al. 2023, Mäkelä et al. 2023, Rankinen et al. 2023). Second, we conclude by discussing the integration of C and biodiversity processes and their landscape-level impacts. The papers in this special issue offer methods and databases for designing optimal solutions for co-managing climate and biodiversity. Using various approaches,Mäkelä et al. (2023) and Kujala et al. (2023) demonstrate that reducing harvesting levels benefits both C storage and biodiversity. While biodiversity conservation is increasingly linked to climate mitigation goals, it should remain the primary focus when prioritizing areas for protection. Finally, we discuss the implementation of economic instruments and policy measures. Kangas and Ollikainen (2023) highlight that adding a C payment to a biodiversity conservation program, with a corresponding increase in the conservation budget, boosts site availability and promotes synergy between biodiversity and C goals. Kujala et al. (2023) show that biodiversity values and stand age correlate more with C storage than with potential C sinks, which should be considered when designing Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes.

Assessing the Selection of Digital Learning Materials: A Facet of Pre-Service Teachers’ Digital Competence

Given the increasing digitalization of education and the variety of available digital learning materials (dLMs) of differing quality, (pre-service) teachers must develop the ability to select appropriate dLMs. Objective, reliable, and valid assessment instruments are necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of that development. This study conceptualized and designed an economical four-item instrument for assessing “selecting dLMs” based on accepted frameworks and competence models. The scientific quality of the instrument was evaluated in Study 1 (n = 164) with four dLMs and empirically investigated in a subsequent Study 2 (n = 395) with pre-service mathematics teachers from two universities. The empirical results indicate that the instrument could objectively and reliably gauge different levels of “selecting dLMs”. Furthermore, the results are consistent with the widely accepted notion that the competence of “selecting dLMs” depends on (content) knowledge; however, that relation was not strong. In addition, the results for objectively assessing “selecting dLMs” paralleled the results of self-assessed TPACK in terms of the academic progression of participants. The proposed approach allows for variations and integration of diverse dLMs, and it has the potential to be adapted in other subject areas and contexts.

RECYCLING AND REDUCTION OF PLASTIC WASTE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND SERBIA: THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND MECHANISMS

In the contemporary context of ecological and economic challenges, the management of plastic waste constitutes a pivotal legal and socio-economic issue of paramount importance for the preservation and protection of the environment and public health. This study examines the legal and economic aspects of plastic-waste management within the European Union, with particular emphasis on identifying deficiencies in the existing legislative framework of the Republic of Serbia. Drawing on comparative practices from EU Member States, especially the implementation of deposit‐refund schemes and eco‐taxes that obligate producers to assume full responsibility for plastic waste, the study proposes legal and economic instruments aimed at reducing plastic waste and incentivizing recycling in Serbia. Statistical data reveal that, in 2022, EU citizens generated an average of 36.1 kg of plastic packaging waste per capita, of which 14.7 kg was recycled. Between 2012 and 2022, per‐capita generation of plastic packaging waste increased by 7.6 kg, while recycled quantities rose by only 4.0 kg. Despite a relatively high recycling rate, this remains insufficient, given the ongoing growth in plastic‐waste generation. The EU’s target is to recycle 55 % of plastic packaging waste by 2030, and certain single‐use plastic products will be banned as of 1 January 2030. In Serbia, 67 355 tones of non‑hazardous plastic waste were generated in 2023, of which 56 513 tones were successfully recycled. Plastic has been identified as one of priority sectors in the European Commission’s New Circular Economy Action Plan for a Cleaner and More Competitive Europe (COM/2020/98) and its governance is integral to the European Green Deal’s sustainable‑development agenda. Particular attention has been devoted to the issue of plastics through EU Directive 2019/904, commonly known as the Single Use Plastics Directive. This Directive has received partial transposition under Serbia’s Packaging Waste Act; nevertheless, comprehensive alignment with EU standards remains outstanding. The recommendations put forward in this study aim to strengthen the legislative framework, enhance regulatory oversight, and establish economic incentives, thereby achieving further increases in recycling rates and minimizing the harmful impacts of plastic waste.

Analyzing the Underlying Motivations Behind the Trump Administration’s New Tariff Policy (2025–2030): Purely Economic, or Driven by Deeper Strategic Goals?

This study investigates the strategic motivations behind the United States’ unprecedented global tariff policy enacted on April 2, 2025, during President Donald Trump’s second term. Using a case study approach and qualitative content analysis of policy documents, speeches, and media, it draws historical parallels to post–Pearl Harbor mobilization and the 1985 Plaza Accord. The research tests four hypotheses: whether the policy aims to (1) lay groundwork for a new monetary agreement, (2) stimulate economic revival under the 2025 Tax Strategy, (3) restructure trade partnerships by categorizing allies and competitors, or (4) reinforce the US dollar’s centrality in the international financial system. Findings suggest the policy is not solely protectionist but serves as a strategic tool to reshape global trade in favor of US leadership. The study contributes to understanding how economic instruments are used to shift power dynamics, offering a conceptual foundation for future research on global economic restructuring.

Planning and its spatiotemporal traps: Rethinking economic value capture and the planner’s role in governing capital flows within the United States

This article repositions planners as central actors in multi-scalar capital flow governance, moving beyond planning’s traditional focus on local value capture intervention within the United States. By exploring multi-scalar regulators – from national to local actors – and intra-national dynamics that shape capital flows, the article highlights the limited spatiotemporal character of contemporary economic value capture instruments, drawing on a typology of these tax, fee, and land-based instruments. Ultimately, I call for planning scholars to reimagine planners as strategic urban governors responsible for safeguarding public interest goals and measures by coordinating multi-scalar regulatory responses to capital flows that assemble the built urban environment.

Catalyzing Innovation Through the India–UK FTA: Integrating Trade, Technology, and Policy for Global Transformation

Abstract: The India–UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) marks a pivotal milestone in international economic diplomacy, serving not only as a trade pact but as a strategic platform for innovation across domains. This paper investigates how the FTA functions as a catalyst for integrated advancements in trade, emerging technologies, and policy frameworks. Using a mixed-methods approach—combining bilateral trade data, policy analysis, and co-publication metrics—we reveal the emergence of a robust India–UK innovation corridor. Key findings indicate a projected 60% increase in joint research output and a significant acceleration of start-up collaborations in sectors such as clean energy, artificial intelligence, and biotechnology. Furthermore, our analysis highlights policy convergence in areas of data governance, intellectual property rights, and digital trade as critical enablers of this transformation. By interpreting trends in funding flows, joint institutional engagements, and regulatory reforms, we argue that the FTA is not merely facilitating commerce but is reconfiguring the innovation ecosystem between two major global players. The study provides actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders to institutionalize this momentum through deeper regulatory harmonization, targeted R&D funding, and cross-sectoral knowledge exchange platforms. This paper contributes a new interdisciplinary lens to understand FTAs not just as economic instruments but as frameworks for global innovation leadership. Keywords: India–UK FTA, innovation policy, trade diplomacy, technology collaboration, global governance, digital economy, R&D efficiency

Markets in Biodiversity Offsets

ABSTRACTWe outline the key features of markets for biodiversity offsets as a promising economic instrument to incentivise conservation on farmland. Following a review of the main advantages of the approach, we summarise the results of empirical investigations of four key design features of such markets: the metric, the exchange rate, the regulatory target and geographic scope.

Geological and hydrometeorological hazards affecting livestock production in Ethiopia: a systematic review of impacts, mitigation, and adaptation strategies

IntroductionEthiopia’s livestock sector is critically vulnerable to a wide range of geological and hydrometeorological hazards that undermine animal health, productivity, and the livelihoods of pastoral communities. The country’s geographic location along the East African Rift System increases its susceptibility to geological threats such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and landslides, while climate variability exacerbates hydrometeorological risks including droughts and floods.MethodsThis systematic review adheres to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines and employs a structured search strategy across major academic databases including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure the relevance and quality of the literature reviewed.ResultsThe review synthesizes findings from high-quality studies to qualitatively assess the compound impacts of geological and hydrometeorological hazards on livestock production in Ethiopia, particularly within pastoral and agro-pastoral systems. Drought emerges as the most significant hazard, with more than 6.8 million livestock deaths reported since 2020 due to successive failed rainy seasons. Floods have also caused severe damage; for instance, the 2006 flooding in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR) resulted in the loss of approximately 15,600 livestock. In contrast, direct data on geological hazards such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes remain limited, though their indirect effects—such as ashfall on grazing lands, water contamination, and disruption of grazing routes—further compromise livestock productivity and resilience.DiscussionThe review highlights critical gaps in data and research, particularly regarding the direct impacts of geological hazards. It identifies key adaptation and mitigation strategies, including early warning systems, hazard mapping, veterinary service enhancement, livestock diversification, and the promotion of livestock insurance schemes. Strengthening policy frameworks, community engagement, and economic instruments is essential to build resilience in the livestock sector. Evidence-based interventions are urgently needed to safeguard livelihoods, ensure food security, and promote sustainable adaptation in Ethiopia’s hazard-prone regions.

Toward a Holistic Legal Framework for Effective Waqf Implementation: Integrating Islamic Socio-Economic Models

Waqf is crucial in the improvement of community welfare and the resolution of socio-economic challenges. Nevertheless, its implementation in Indonesia is beset by various legal, institutional, and managerial obstacles, such as insufficient regulations, a lack of public awareness, and inefficient governance. This research aims to evaluate the legal framework for the effective integration of the Islamic socio-economic model into the waqf process. This normative legal study employs a regulatory-legislative approach, conceptualization, and Lawrence M. Friedman's legal system theory to evaluate the efficacy of regulations concerning waqf. The research's findings suggest that Indonesia's waqf regulations continue to encounter legal challenges, particularly in conjunction with the discordant regulations in settlement and the lax rules regarding productive waqf. The effectiveness of the waqf administration is impeded by the lack of professionalism of the nazhir and the weaknesses in the supervision of the Indonesian Waqf Board (BWI) regarding legal structure. In the meantime, the legal culture demonstrates that the community's low legal awareness results in the inadequate documentation of numerous waqf assets, rendering them susceptible to protection and underutilization. Consequently, it is imperative to enhance the professionalism of nazhir, revise regulations, and digitize waqf management to improve transparency and efficiency. Community participation and more stringent supervision are also necessary for optimizing waqf as an economic and social instrument.

Towards A Modern Waqf Management Model: Optimizing the Utilization of Waqf Potential in Islamic Countries

Waqf is one of the Islamic social finance instruments with immense potential to support the economic development of the ummah through sustainable long-term assets. The concept of perpetual waqf (mu’abbad) emphasizes the principle of asset perpetuity to provide continuous benefits to society, particularly in the sectors of education, agriculture, healthcare, and social welfare. In various Islamic countries, including Indonesia, waqf has significantly contributed to poverty alleviation and the improvement of social well-being. However, its implementation in Indonesia still faces challenges, such as suboptimal management, limited public awareness, and insufficient adoption of technology.This study employs a literature review method to explore the potential of waqf in Indonesia and other Islamic countries while examining modern waqf management models implemented in developed countries such as Egypt, Turkey, and Jordan. The findings indicate that professionalized management, technological integration, and public education are crucial for maximizing waqf’s contribution as a modern economic instrument. Additionally, to optimize the benefits of waqf as a perpetual economic instrument, several modern waqf management models are proposed, including istibdal (asset substitution), investment (istismar), transforming direct waqf into productive waqf, leasing of waqf assets, waqf-based financing, and the Benefit, Opportunity, Cost, and Risk (BOCR) analysis.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: EVOLUTION OF MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

The purpose of the study is to define the right to development as a basic right in the context of sustainable development, which requires a methodological distinction between the concept of general human rights in the context of sustainable development and human rights to development, with the separation of the economic aspects of its provision in the context of the imperative of environmentalization and sustainability. It is established that a kind of "globalization of development" shifts the emphasis from development policy from the South-North coordinates, towards the absolutization of saving the planet in the context of global vulnerability to climate change and pandemics. The adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 can be seen as a turning point when problems began to be associated not only with the countries of the South, but also with every state, regardless of its level of development. It is argued that a rights-based approach to development absolutizes ensuring fair and sustainable progress, global responsibility, defining clear guidelines and limitations, provides a holistic view of human development at all stages of their life, and is also determined by the principles of the Declaration on the Right to Development. It is established that the institutionalization of sustainability involves the introduction of new market mechanisms for regulating world economic ties that go beyond preferences in international trade for developing countries. A set of economic instruments (fees and taxes; preferences; transferable permits; subsidies to encourage activity; manipulation of insurance premiums; transfer of responsibility; system of preferences; voluntary agreements; gradation of premiums; provision of bonuses) of the greening of international cooperation as an imperative of international economic development has been identified, which indirectly indicates the relevance of the implementation of the "right to development", which can be demonstrated by progress in the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals as a global guide to the sustainability paradigm. The legal content of the principle of preferences for developing countries has been determined, which consists in: (1) the right of developing countries to special tariff rates; (2) the right of developing countries not to grant developed countries the preferences that they have among themselves; (3) the right of developing countries to use subsidies, including export subsidies, for the purposes of socio-economic development; (4) the obligation of developed countries not to discriminate against developing countries; (5) the obligation of developed countries to reduce or eliminate duties on goods for developing countries without countervailing duties, as well as their right to gradually eliminate preferences in accordance with the level of development achieved by a particular developing country; (6) the obligation of developing countries, in accordance with the level of development achieved, to assume obligations that are characteristic of developed countries in international relations. It is emphasized that the concept of sustainable development extends beyond environmental issues and affirms the responsibility of current generations to future generations. It is established that sustainability is an inherent feature of the concept of the "right to development", which determines the expected effective obligations for states in policymaking, a general indication of the nature and consequences of political decisions, and on the other hand, sustainable development refers to ethical values. It is proven that the institutionalization of sustainability involves the introduction of new market mechanisms for regulating world economic ties, including tax mechanisms and environmental taxation, modified market mechanisms and emissions trading, environmental financing and green investments, environmental standards and certification, payments for ecosystem services. Ecological and economic instruments for ensuring sustainable development in the development policy of the EU and in Ukraine are considered.

Export Controls and the Green Agenda in the European Union

Abstract This article argues that critical and emerging technologies, evolving geopolitical dynamics and the urgent need to pursue the green agenda are changing the traditional approach of the European Union (EU) and its Member States towards their trade and security strategies, and this is particularly evident in the domain of export controls. In search of a balance between green energy, security and technological progress, this article explores the potential for a more cohesive and comprehensive regulatory framework for export controls at the EU level. It takes the debate beyond a technical level of export control lists to discuss geopolitical and strategic assumptions surrounding inter-State cooperation on the regulation of critical and emerging technologies and their components. The article underscores, in particular, the potential unintended repercussions of controls for the EU's technological future and the prospects of the green transition in Europe and beyond. Finally, it advocates for what is often overlooked in discussions: the necessity for the EU to set clear, long-term objectives for its export controls and to align them with the purposes and objectives of other EU economic instruments.

Managing tourism in Antarctica: impacts, forecasts, and suitable economic instruments

Rapid growth in tourism to Antarctica has led the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties to launch a multi-year process to develop a framework for managing Antarctic tourism. Managing tourism in this region poses particular challenges, given the remoteness, ecological sensitivity and complex institutional systems. Approximately 65% of the current 120,000+ Antarctic cruise tourists travel on ‘expedition’ vessels that allow landfall. Landings are concentrated in relatively few locations, with potential for localised impacts. All vessels, including larger ‘cruise-only’ vessels that do not land passengers, generate carbon emissions, thus indirectly impacting the region. Using historical data, we forecast that tourist numbers could quadruple from current levels in ten years, with the largest growth occurring within the ‘landed’ sector. With these forecasts in mind, we consider a variety of price-based, quantity-based, and ‘market-friction’ economic instruments and assess their potential effectiveness (curtailing impacts or slowing growth in landings) and their potential acceptability/suitability (within existing governance systems) in this unique place. Our analysis suggests that it may be possible to forestall impacts by complementing existing regulations and guidelines with a combination of quantity-based instruments, nudging, and tighter certification. There are, nonetheless, practical difficulties, including the contrasting interests, values and political priorities of the twenty-nine Consultative Parties.

Perbedaan Kinerja Baznas dan Lazismu Berdasarkan Analisis SWOT

This study evaluates the performance of zakat management by the National Zakat Agency (BAZNAS) and the Muhammadiyah Zakat Institution (LAZISMU) using the SWOT analysis method. The findings reveal that BAZNAS has strengths in government legitimacy, resource access, and nationwide coverage, but faces challenges due to complex bureaucracy. In contrast, LAZISMU excels in flexibility and a community-based approach but encounters obstacles such as dependence on donations and income fluctuations. The SWOT analysis identifies the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of both institutions, which can be leveraged to formulate more effective zakat management strategies. The study also highlights the importance of data validity and reliability through method triangulation to ensure the findings reflect actual conditions. The qualitative approach provides in-depth insights into the dynamics of zakat management, the challenges, and the opportunities faced. Digital transformation and cross-sector collaboration play a crucial role in optimizing zakat's potential as an economic empowerment instrument. These findings are expected to support the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in poverty alleviationsv and reducing inequalities.

The political and economic aspect of the balance of relations between China, India and Pakistan

The main topic of the article is the economic and political aspect of maintaining balance in the triangle of countries China-India-Pakistan, which are presented in this study as elements of the subregional system of international relations in close connection with the algorithms of the functioning of the Asia-Pacific region. The work begins with a characterization of the Asia-Pacific region and an analysis of the place of South Asia in this region. A review of Sino-Indian and Sino-Pakistani relations is made with the corresponding conclusions. Given the new challenges to international security and taking into account the significant role of the economy in the development of certain countries, new threats and new opportunities for difficult interstate relations are considered. The work highlights the economic aspects that influence politics; restraining factors of the antagonistic relations of the “triangle”. The key question remains whether China can cooperate with both warring parties, avoiding provocations. Only balanced political steps can save Beijing from the collapse of its South Asia policy. The economic and political instruments of implementing such a policy towards India and Pakistan are highlighted in this article.

The adoption of the Swedish carbon tax: Influences and interactions across multiple political levels, jurisdictions, and policy areas

AbstractWhen Sweden adopted its carbon tax in 1990, it was as one of the first of its kind worldwide. While the adoption of the tax has been attributed to its inclusion in the Swedish tax reform, undoubtedly playing a crucial role, the reform does not in itself explain how the Swedish carbon tax came about or why it became part of the reform package in the first place. In this article, we present a case study analyzing the policy process in more detail by using the Multiple Streams Framework (MSF) to better capture the role that influences and interactions across political levels, jurisdictions, and policy areas played. Our analysis shows how impacts from such influences and interactions were critical for the process leading up to policy adoption: The carbon tax, seen as connected to energy policy, was coupled to both environmental and economic problems. This was crucial for building political support in parliament and across interest groups, while the work of international epistemic communities influenced the introduction of the ideas of environmental economic instruments and carbon taxation. Without these couplings and influences, it is doubtful whether the carbon tax would have been adopted at that time.

DIGITALISATION OF THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM IN THE CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC AND LEGAL AREAS OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION

The article examines the concept and essence of the aspects of digitalisation in the field of public administration in the context of economic and legal instruments of influence on the quality and speed of European integration processes. The modern doctrine identifies several main features of the digital transformation of public administration. In Ukraine, significant progress in the development of digital transformation of public administration has been observed since 2016, when the Digital Agenda of Ukraine 2020 programme was developed, which was adapted to the standards of the European Union's Digital Agenda and included plans for the transition to digital transformation of public administration and the Ukrainian economy. The areas of digital development were identified as follows: bridging the digital divide through the development of digital infrastructures; development of digital competencies; implementation of the concept of digital jobs; digitalisation of the real economy (development of Industry 4.0); implementation of digital transformation projects; public safety; education; healthcare; tourism; e-democracy; ecology and environmental protection; urban life (building a smart city); cashless payments; harmonisation with European and global scientific initiatives; and public administration. Among the main characteristics of digitalisation in public administration is the use of digital tools, such as open data, electronic platforms and analytical systems, which facilitates citizens' access to information about the activities of public authorities, thus reducing corruption risks. Digitalisation stimulates the introduction of new technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain and big data for forecasting, analysis and management. It is emphasised that in the context of digitalisation, special attention should be paid to cyber protection of citizens' data and state information systems. Therefore, the process of digitalisation in Ukraine is inextricably linked to the harmonisation of digital standards with European ones, which facilitates the country's integration into the EU's digital single market. The authors paid special attention to the role of key elements of e-governance, such as the development of the functionality of the online system "Diia" and the portal "Diia.Business", since the introduction of the Unified Portal of Public Services "Diia" is a significant step in the development of the "digital society". The author identifies four main stages of formation of the system of public administrative e-services in Ukraine. The most popular types of public services that can be accessed through digital technologies today are: 1) SRCSA services (state registration of civil status acts); 2) registration of an individual entrepreneur; 3) accruals for e-pensions; 4) electronic driver's office; 5) e-HELSI (doctor's appointment, medical record, e-prescriptions and treatment plan); 6) state land cadastre, etc. In the process of digitalising public administration, an important aspect is to simplify and accelerate procedures and mechanisms for making and implementing government decisions. This helps to reduce bureaucratic barriers and make processes more transparent and efficient. Digital technologies enable public services to respond more quickly to the needs of citizens and improve the quality of services provided. An important aspect of digital transformation is also increasing the accessibility of public services for different segments of the population, including those with limited physical or information mobility. Thus, the author has formed and confirmed the hypothesis that digitalisation is a strategic direction of public administration reform, and it really allows for qualitative changes in management processes, adaptation to modern challenges and increased public trust in state institutions, despite the most difficult challenges that Ukraine has been facing over the past three years.

Directions for establishing economically efficient tariffs in the thermal energy sector

The article examines the key aspects of tariff regulation in the thermal energy sector of Almaty. Based on data from 2015 to 2024, a comprehensive analysis of factors influencing tariffs was conducted, including labor costs, energy consumption, infrastructure investments, and environmental requirements. The application of correlation and regression analysis methods allowed for the identification of scientifically grounded directions for improving tariff policy. The authors propose specific measures for cost optimization, the implementation of energy-saving technologies, and infrastructure modernization to enhance the effectiveness of tariff regulation. Additionally, measures aimed at protecting socially vulnerable groups, ensuring tariff fairness, and achieving environmental sustainability are discussed. The study highlights the importance of increasing energy efficiency as a key factor in optimal tariff formation. The research findings are directed toward improving the efficiency of tariff policy in the thermal energy sector, developing optimal mechanisms for regulating natural monopolies, and ensuring sustainable development. The methodological approaches proposed in the article form a scientific and practical basis for enhancing energy sector policies and implementing new economic regulatory instruments. The obtained conclusions can be effectively applied in real tariff management practices.

Organizational and economic instruments for regulating the logistics services market: status and prospects

Organizational and economic instruments for regulating the logistics services market: status and prospects

Unpacking China’s climate policy mixes shows a disconnect between policy density and intensity in the post-Paris era

As the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitter, China would make important contributions to the achievement of the Paris goals if it made economy-wide, strong policy interventions to combat climate change. Despite a growing number of studies on China’s climate governance, the overall landscape of China’s climate policy and its key characteristics remain underexamined. To address this knowledge gap, we developed a dataset of 358 climate-related policies adopted by China’s central government in 2016–2022 and assessed key policy mix characteristics including policy density, balance and intensity. Our findings reveal that higher policy density does not equate to stronger action. Significant variation also exists in alignment with China’s Nationally Determined Contributions, especially in high-emitting sectors. Moreover, despite a relatively balanced mix of regulatory, economic, and informational instruments, this balance does not guarantee intensity. Our study shows challenges in China’s policy coherence and calls for stronger mechanisms to integrate national goals into sectoral policies.