Ecological Criteria Research Articles

Evaluation feasibility and ecological gap in marine conservation area of Southeast Sulawesi Province

Aquatic Tourism Park (ATP) of the Southeast Sulawesi Province has significant contribution to achieve the total targeted of 30 million of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in Indonesia. The conservation area is located in 3 coastal districts of Konawe, South Konawe, and Kendari City Districts. The time-consuming process of legalizing the conservation area has driven the need to re-evaluate the ecological conditions from 2012 to 2020. The objective of this study is to this aims to determine the status, gaps and ecological feasibility of conservation areas in the Southeast Sulawesi region. One of the noticeable gaps is the change of ecological conditions in the reservation area. The gap could be identified by comparing ecological conditions before and after the area was reserved for a conservation area. Ecosystem suitability was measured by using ecological criteria, such as number of protected fish species, mangrove density, seagrass coverage, coral coverage, and naturalness. The score of suitability assessment was 31, which showed that the reserved location was suitable for a Marine Conservation Area. However, gap analysis results showed 10% decline in coral coverage and 17% decrease in seagrass coverage, while mangrove density decreased as much as 102 trees/ha during that period. Evaluation on the ecosystem condition was conducted by applying suitability analysis of the modified E-KKP3K dan Sambah et al. (2020) methods, resulting a status of suitable or conservation area allocation (score 31). Criteria used were chosen based on its contribution in facilitating important ecological processes and as ecosystem buffer system in the area. This study will give the implementation on MPA management optimalisation and it can be contributed on fisheries management.Keywords:Conservation areaFeasibility areaGapSoutheast Sulawesi

Evaluation of re-depositing hydropower trapped sediments at large rivers to improve flood protection and aquatic habitats – Case study Danube/Austria

Sedimentation in impoundments of run-of-river hydropower plants is an ongoing and progressing management issue for hydropower operators because of its consequences for e.g., the maintenance of flood protection and waterway parameters. Current practices in sediment management are often unsustainable, associated with high costs, and can pose risks for downstream biota (e.g. during flushing). The present study elaborated a conceptual model of a novel sediment management strategy for impounded river sections consisting of a current-state and deficit analysis, and the application of a novel sediment management practice, which was practically implemented at the study site at the Austrian Danube River. This novel practice consists of (i) local dredging of gravel at locations in the impoundment, which are problematic in terms of flood protection and waterway maintenance, and (ii) the re-deposition of dredged sediments by artificial placement of gravel structures. The present study included morphological analyses of the impounded section at the study site by applying the channel profile budget technique. The knowledge of the long-term morphological development served as a basis for the evaluation of the sediment management measures and for the elaboration of the conceptual model. The combination of the morphodynamic characteristics in the impoundment with the implementation of the novel sediment management practice helped to derive generalized statements for the potential implementation of the presented conceptual model in large rivers with similar impoundment characteristics. We further defined several aspects, which are related to sediment dynamics in impounded river sections, flood protection, waterway demands, and ecological criteria that require consideration for an efficient realization of the proposed conceptual model.

Soil pH change induced by smelting activities affects secondary carbonate production and long-term Cd activity in subsoils

Cadmium (Cd) is a typical element with contamination risk caused by anthropogenic sources. Cd is known to associate with Fe (hydr)oxides in pH-neutral to slightly acidic soils. However, field evidence on the effects of high pH on the long-term migration and redistribution of Cd in the soil is lacking. In this study, a comprehensive investigation of Cd, Pb, and Zn distribution in soils was performed at a Pb–Zn smelter site to unravel the pH control of long-term Cd activity in soils contaminated by non-ferrous metal smelting. Atmospheric deposition caused widespread contamination of the surface soil. In contrast, the discharge of heavy metals and alkaline waste liquid from two separate pollutant sources inside the smelter resulted in severe pollution migrating from the deeper layers up to a depth of 10 m. Elemental analysis showed that the Cd/Zn ratio in soil increased as the pH value increased, indicating that Cd was progressively decoupled from Zn and accumulated in the solid phase. Chemical extraction, SEM-EDS mapping, and micro-FTIR mapping analysis of soil particles revealed that most of the Cd were correlated with calcite, which formed as a secondary mineral at a higher pH. The production of secondary carbonate as a geochemical barrier enhanced the natural attenuation of Cd, which provides a reference for remediating Cd pollution. Overall, the results provide information for studying the transport and accumulation of heavy metals in deep soil layers. On the other hand, as carbonate is an unstable sink compared to other carriers, this mechanism should be considered in future studies on health and ecological risk assessment criteria for heavy metal pollutants in alkaline environments.

Prioritizing forest conservation strategies using a multi-attribute decision model to address concerns with the survival of the endangered dragon tree (Dracaena ombet Kotschy and Peyr.)

The globally endangered Dracaena ombet is one of the ten dragon multipurpose tree species in arid ecosystems. Anthropogenic and natural factors are now impacting the sustainability of the species. This study was conducted to prioritize criteria and alternative strategies for conservation of the species using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) model by involving all relevant stakeholders in the Desa'a dry Afromontane forest, northern Ethiopia. Information about the potential alternative strategies and the criteria for their evaluation were first collected from experts, personal experiences and literature reviews. Afterwards, they were validated using stakeholders' focus group discussions. Five candidate strategies with three evaluation criteria were considered for prioritization using the AHP techniques. The overall priority ranking value of the stakeholders showed that the ecological criterion was deemed as the most essential factor for the choice of the alternative strategies, followed by the economic and social criteria. The minimum cut-off strategy, combining exclosures with collection of only 5% of plant parts from the species, soil and water conservation and habitat protection management options, was selected as the best alternative strategy for sustainable D. ombet conservation. The livelihood losses due to the selected strategy should be compensated by the collection of non-timber forest products, poultry farming, home gardens, rearing small ruminants, beekeeping and agroforestry. This approach may be extended to study other dragon tree species and explore strategies for the conservation of other arid ecosystems.

Hotspot analysis for organic laying hen husbandry—identification of sustainability problems as potential risk points to lose consumers’ trust

Over the last decade, there has been growing societal concern about the welfare of farmed animals. Although organic agriculture provides higher living standards, there are still critical points which can damage consumers’ trust in organic livestock farming. That is a risk, as especially organic farming relies on consumer trust. A hotspot analysis was conducted to identify critical points within the organic laying hen husbandry in Germany. This methodology aims to examine the sustainability of a product along its whole life cycle. Based on literature reviews, the life phases breeding, keeping, feeding, animal health, transport, and slaughter were assessed with ecological, social, and animal welfare criteria. Finally, the results were triangulated with various experts, and the critical points were classified in terms of their potential to diverge from consumers’ expectations. Our results show a high dependency of the organic sector on the conventional breeding process and its specialized breeds. This fact involves critical points which contradict the ideology of organic farming. The loopholes in the organic EU regulations in transport and slaughter were identified as additional threats to consumer trust in the organic system. The overall not better animal health compared to the conventional poultry system and the high numbers of poultry kept on some organic farms are also possible causes of disappointment in consumers’ vision of organic livestock farming. Therefore, we recommend an adjustment of some organic EU regulations regarding these points. Further, a linkage of the organic certification of a slaughterhouse to higher animal welfare standards during slaughter should be considered.

Regional-scale non-market benefits of improved lakes and rivers when perceived and monitored ecological status diverge

There is increased call to demonstrate the benefits of EU Member States’ river basin management plans, whose implementation has been delayed largely due to insufficient funding. This paper applies a contingent valuation study to investigate the benefit value of improved ecological status in river basins and the discrepancy between the quality of waters as perceived by river basin residents and as monitored under the Water Framework Directive. Respondents often reported worse quality for their focal water body than the monitored status indicated, a tendency established in a GIS analysis. The likelihood of such divergence increased most with degree of perceived deterioration of surface waters. Observed deterioration in waters, official status of one’s focal water body and divergence between two quality measures had implications for welfare estimates. Describing water quality according to ecological criteria and as uniformly as possible would facilitate the use of valuation results in future benefit transfers.

Multicriteria analysis of critical areas for restoration in a semiarid landscape: A comparison between stakeholder groups

In landscape-scale ecological restoration, there is an urgent need to develop participatory systematic planning strategies and prioritization schemes that are operational under current technical and legal constraints. Different stakeholder groups may differ in their choice of criteria to define critical areas for restoration. Analyzing the correspondence between stakeholder characteristics and their expressed preferences is key to understand their values and facilitate consensus among the different groups. We analyzed the participatory identification of critical areas for restoration in a Mediterranean semiarid landscape of southeastern Spain by means of two Spatial Multicriteria Analyses. The first one included 33 ecological and socioeconomic prioritization criteria. The second included 24 ecosystem services. Prioritization criteria and services and their weights were based on the preferences of 46 stakeholders. We distinguished three stakeholder groups, according to their approach to ecological restoration. Stakeholders showed similarities regarding the most important criteria and services assessed. Yet, we found contrasted opinions between the group labeled as Biodiversity, who showed preference for Regulating Services and Ecosystem Functions, and the two groups labeled as Environment, and Agriculture & other occupations who assigned the highest importance to Provisioning and Cultural Services, along with highly Anthropized Environments. Maps integrating criteria and services weighted by the different groups of stakeholders were largely coincident, because of their overall agreement and the high number of criteria and services included in the analysis. Our approach allowed the identification of consensual critical areas for restoration, which were mainly covered by shrublands and rainfed crops, and mostly characterized by low to medium supply of ecosystem services. Our study emphasizes the need to recognize and integrate different social perspectives when identifying critical areas for restoration and highlights the importance of using complementary approaches as decision-making support tools to define these areas.

Energy and emission properties of burley tobacco stalk briquettes and its combinations with other biomass as promising replacement for coal.

As a tobacco producer, Serbia has to deal with large amounts of leftover tobacco stalks after harvesting. One option for this type of biomass is to burn it, but burning is not encouraged in Serbia, since the levels of its combustion products have not been investigated yet. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the elemental composition, ash and nicotine content, heat values, and composition of gaseous combustion products of tobacco stalk briquettes and to see if their mixing with other types of biomass available in Serbia could improve their ecological profile. We made 11 different types of briquettes: six of pure raw materials, including burley tobacco stalks, sunflower head remains, wheat straw, corncob, soy straw, and beech sawdust and five by mixing tobacco stalks with these other raw materials in a 50:50 mass ratio. All briquettes meet the ecological criteria regarding the emission limits for nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Nicotine content in flue gases (<10 mg/kg) is far below the maximum level allowed by the European Union. Heat values of all biomass samples are acceptable, although lower than those specified for solid biofuels (≥16.0 MJ/kg), save for corncob and beech sawdust and their mixtures with tobacco stalks. Our findings therefore encourage the use of tobacco stalks as a viable biofuel.

A multivariate approach to synthetize large amount of connectivity matrices for management decisions: Application to oyster population restocking in the pearl farming context of Tuamotu Archipelago semi-closed atolls

In applied ecology, numerical biophysical modelling allows running numerous simulations of spatial connectivity between source and destination locations. To characterize population connectivity, larval dispersal and resulting connectivity matrices can be computed for various forcing conditions of wind, density of spawners, or pelagic larval durations. Here, we investigate a methodology to synthetize meaningfully all numerical experiments performed for three atoll lagoons in the Tuamotu Archipelago pearl farming context. The objective is to identify the best restocking locations that consistently maximize the spread of pearl oyster larval dispersal, considering all forcing conditions. A multivariate generic approach is used to process and synthesize time-series of connectivity matrices and identify afterward with contextual criteria the spawning locations that match a variety of specific connectivity, logistical and ecological criteria. Similar synthesis of large volume of connectivity matrices will likely gain momentum considering the increasing use of numerical models for applied science and population management.

ModERFoRest: A new software for assessing the environmental performance of forest species

Aim of study: We introduce the software ModERFoRest (Modelling Environmental Requirements for Forest Restoration), which is a tool to estimate the environmental requirements and environmental performance of the main forest tree species growing in Spain. Area of study: Two of their modules have been developed to be applied mainly in Spain, but the main section can be used elsewhere as long as the user provides with presence data and environmental information. Material and methods: ModERFoRest has been programmed in C++, also using the Armadillo library for algebraic computation. The application can be downloaded from the INIA website (https://www.inia.es/serviciosyrecursos/recursosinformaticos/modernforest/Paginas/ModERFoRest.aspx) where there are also more accessible resources (currently only in Spanish language). Main results: ModERFoRest provides three basic utilities, firstly, to select the optimal species to be used for forest restoration, at local or regional scale, among the 22 most important taxa or formations in Spain, based on ecological criteria and physiographic, climatic and edaphic information. Secondly, to explore the potential distribution areas of the species using the ecological niche models and algorithms developed throughout different projects on the autecology of the species over the last 55 years. Finally, the application provides the option of comparing different areas of the species ecologically, in order to obtain the most suitable reproductive material for the forest site under study. Research highlights: Users can also run not only recent but also future climate scenarios in order to simulate the distribution of ecological species and use the results in reforestation programmes and planning.

Overview and potential implementation of a marine protected area network between Colombia, Nicaragua, and Jamaica

The United Nations recommends increasing protected area coverage to 30% by 2030 through representative and effective networks of marine protected areas (MPAn). According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the number of MPAs increased rapidly from 0.67% in 2000–7.4% by the end of 2018. Yet only around 5.9% of the world’s coral reef area is included within MPAs and the implementation of MPA networks in areas beyond national jurisdiction remains limited. Here we report results on the evaluation of the ecological criteria suggested by the IUCN for the potential implementation of a MPAn between Nicaragua, Jamaica, and Colombia on the southwestern side of the Caribbean Sea. We have reviewed the different legislative structures for protection in place and the international and regional agreements endorsed by Colombia, Nicaragua, and Jamaica in force in 2020, together with biophysical connectivity studies in the Caribbean basin. Results indicate that the three countries: (i) have similar ecosystems open to protection, (ii) have already developed different governance instruments to protect them, (iii) there is a coherence between permitted and prohibited activities that provides strong governance related support for the potential MPA network for all zoning categories and iv) have the legislation and common ground to lead a successful implementation. The study concludes that the establishment of an MPA network in the southwestern part of the Caribbean will be advantageous for the protection of other marine ecosystems in the basin, addressing transboundary issues by focusing on connectivity and the already established MPA.

Experimental study on usage of (PET) waste plastic incorporating with (TIO2) titanium dioxide for the construction of plastic roads

Plastic waste, which is observed to be very harmful for the habitat, is found to be occur around 5% in municipal solid waste (MSW). Currently a critical problem is the discarding of plastic waste. These waste plastics are everlasting, which in turn contributes to the immense environment contamination and public health troubles. The several researches at different institutes advised that this waste plastic can be utilized for the purpose of construction of asphaltic pavements. The usage of this plastic waste for constructing pavements is depended on the economic, technical and ecological criteria. If this waste plastic be used properly for the manufacturing of roads, discarding and problems of contamination will be diminished to a great extent. The main aim of this study is to find out the maximum proportion of plastic waste which will be added in the constructional mix for getting the mandatory strength. The main focus of this study is to how the amount of waste plastic will be increased when a suitable amount of an admixture like tio2 will be blended to the normal plastic waste mix which will be utilized for the manufacturing of waste plastic pavements. Two kinds of plastic waste samples were casted, with Tio2 and without Tio2. Both kinds of samples were prepared according to Marshall Mix design prescribed by MORTH (IV revision) on both types of samples, tests like Marshall stability test and indirect tensile strength test were done and then the results were compared. It was observed that the value for both the Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength test shows a huge increase in their respective value of plastic samples blended with Tio2 when compared to the normal plastic waste samples at 17% of waste plastic, the Marshall stability value observed to be the maximum and however for the indirect tensile strength at 17% of plastic waste blended with 17% Tio2 shows the highest values when compared to normal plastic waste samples. It was seen that utilizing Tio2 as an admixture has given outstanding results and demonstrated maximum values for engineering and rheological properties like Marshall Stability, Deformational flow, density, water resistance and indirect tensile strength etc.

Designing an Extensive Conservation Reserve Network with Economic, Ecological and Spatial Criteria

Designing an Extensive Conservation Reserve Network with Economic, Ecological and Spatial Criteria

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SARATA

The purpose of research: to determine the costs, chemical composition, mineralization and the state of water pollution of the small Sarata River according to ecological and sanitary criteria, specific substances of toxic action, to assess the suitability of water for irrigation according to irrigation indicators. Data and Methods. Research methods are based on systemic analysis and general principles of objectivity, causality, relevance and evolution. Of the traditional general scientific methods, observation, analysis and synthesis, comparison and analogy, generalization and abstraction, methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory are used. Formation of environmental information databases and mathematical processing of research results were carried out in Microsoft Excel, Costat, Statistic. by systematization and evaluation of the received information by tabular and graphic methods, dispersion analysis performed on a personal computer using a standard program package. Parallel statistical series of chemical analysis data contained up to 120 values for 1946–2018. Results. According to research, the width of the river Sarata in the village. Sarata varied from 0.6 to 31.9 m with an average value of 11.35 m. The average depth of river water varied from 3 to 279 cm at the greatest depth – from 7 to 346 cm. The cross-sectional area of the river water flow varied from 0.02 up to 72.9 m2 with an average value of 8.26 m2. The average water flow rate varied from 0.01 to 0.92 m/s with an average long-term value of 0.25 m/s. The maximum water flow velocities of the river varied from 0.01 to 1.29 m/s. The measured water flow rates during this period varied from 0.002 to 107 m3/s. According to the arithmetic mean values of the mineralization of the water of the Sarata river in 1953–2017 belonged to the brackish β-mesogaline 2nd class, 3 quality categories. According to the ecological quality assessment, the water of Sarata was polluted with components of salt composition chlorides and sulfates, biogenic compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus, organic substances, heavy metals (iron, manganese, copper, zinc, nickel, lead, etc.), oil products, SPAR, phenols. The calculated pollution index of river water belongs to the 6th class dirty in terms of tropho-saprobiological indicators. According to most irrigation assessment methods and the state standard of Ukraine for irrigation water, the river runoff is not suitable for soil irrigation, requires reduction of alkalinity, saturation with calcium salts and dilution with fresh water.

Taxonomic Diversity and Selection of Functional Traits in Novel Ecosystems Developing on Coal-Mine Sedimentation Pools

Coal-mine sedimentation pools are extrazonal habitats in which the anthropogenic changes of all historic, abiotic, and biotic components, followed by conditions of extreme environmental stress, lead to the formation of novel ecosystems. Our study aims to (i) classify the vegetation on the basis of floristic and ecological criteria, (ii) detect the main environmental gradients responsible for the diversity of vegetation, and (iii) present the selection of species’ functional traits along environmental gradients. A cluster analysis of the floristic data revealed 14 distinct combinations of species. Short- and long-lived ruderals, meadow, xerothermic, and psammophilous species make up the floristic composition of vegetation. A canonical correspondence analysis on the floristic data and average Ellenberg’s indicator values confirmed moisture, soil reaction, and salinity as the main gradients, while fertility and insolation were secondary gradients shaping the diversity of vegetation. A RLQ with a subsequent cluster analysis revealed four groups of species traits selected along environmental gradients. These differed with reference to morphological (canopy height) and physiological traits (specific leaf area, or SLA), as well as persistence (life span), regeneration (reproduction by seeds or vegetative reproduction), and dispersal functional traits. This knowledge can be crucial when planning the restoration of these sites by using spontaneous succession and learning how the various environmental resources can be used to restore or provide new ecosystem services.

Evaluation of Sustainable Rural Tourism Development with an Integrated Approach Using MDS and ANP Methods: Case Study in Ciamis, West Java, Indonesia

Indonesia is an agricultural country, and most of its territory is in the form of villages that have the potential to be developed as rural tourism centers. One area that has the potential to be developed into rural tourism centers is Panjalu, Indonesia. However, the sustainable development of rural tourism in Panjalu, Indonesia, still needs to be improved, so the community cannot enjoy the benefits of this rural tourism. This study aimed to analyze the sustainability strategy of rural tourism development in Panjalu, Ciamis, Indonesia. This study combined two methods, consisting of the Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) and the Analytic Network Process (ANP). The MDS results show that rural tourism sustainability in Panjalu, Indonesia is included in the sufficient category, with a sustainability index of 57,998; 66,278; and 51,862, for ecological, socio-cultural and economic criteria, respectively. The MDS also analyzes which attributes are sensitive to the sustainability status. The most sensitive attributes for each criterion include Biodiversity for ecological criteria (RMS 2.224), Local Community Involvement for the social-culture criteria (1.147), and Livelihood Diversification for the economic criteria (1.245). These most sensitive attributes are, then, used as a reference for developing sustainable rural tourism development strategies. As a result, the strategic priority ranking for rural tourism in Panjalu, Indonesia is rural tourism based on culture and community development.

Analysis of Interrelations Structure in Agro-Systems Using the Factor Analysis Technique (FA)

A model is not an exact copy of its original, but only its idealised reproduction that is simpler, more understandable, more accessible and easier, safer and more effective to work with. In the presented study, we used the technique of factor analysis (FA). We used 44 parameters to describe an agroecosystem, which proportionally describe the main components of the study agroecosystem. Based on Malinowsky error analysis, we extracted a 6-factor solution. We found out that Factor 1 [Climate factor] had primary factor loads in [average temperatures TIII-TIX (0.99) and [average atmospheric precipitation ZIII-ZIV (0.99)] variables. Factor 2 [Chemical parameters of geological foundation] was mainly saturated by [SiO2-G (0.92), Al2O3-(0.82), (CaO-G (0.83)] variables and secondary loads were observed in soil [SiO2-P (0.61], [CaO-P (0.64], [Al2O3-P (0.32)], [soil skeleton SKEL (0.47)] and [granularity GRN (0.39)] variables. Factor 3 [Phytomass production potential factor] had primary factor loads in [depth of soil profile DSP (0.76)], [quality of organic substances Q4/6 (0.63)], [slopeness SL (0.67)] and [potential phytomass production PROD (0.65)] variables. In factor 4 [Physical-chemical soil properties factor] variables [Al2O3, (0.81)], [granularity GRN (0.69)] and [SiO2 (0.61)] have significant loads. Factor 5 [Erosion by water potential factor] has the highest primary loads in [large-scale arable land ALL (0.70)] and [soil loss as a result of erosion EROS (0.67)] variables, and secondary loads in the [continuous length of plot of land slope LS (0.53)] variable. Factor 6 [Biochemical properties factor] has the highest factor load values in the content of organic substances in soil [content of organic substances in soil H (0.69)]. Secondary loads can be seen in the properties of soil [GRN (0.35)], [SiO2 (0.32)], [Al2O3-P (0.38)] and [depth of groundwater surface GWS (0.39)]. We determined the weight coefficients for the individual factors with the aim of quantifying ecological criteria with the obtained factor structure. The factor score F0 determines the projections of the extracted factors for the individual elements of the selection (it is the value soil-ecological units—VSEU). Row vectors in this matrix represent the distribution of the individual factors for the specific realisation of the selection (spatial distribution). We re-scaled the obtained values of the factor score into seven categories and projected them into VSEU units. We could propose a sustainable agroecosystem management based on quantifying the ecological criteria for each VSEU unit.

Project “Most Important Karst Aquifer Springs” (MIKAS) and Bulgaria's participation in it

Karst has a wide distribution, both throughout the world and in Bulgaria. The groundwater formed in it are important for providing water for the population and for the existence of a number of ecosystems. Considering the importance of karst springs, an international project "Most Important Karst Aquifer Springs" – MIKAS was started. The project aims to bring together the joint efforts of scientists from different countries in order to characterize and promote the most important springs in the respective countries. Its organization is carried out by an international Advisory Board, and National experts from the respective country are involved in its implementation. The main task is to prepare Global and National lists of karst springs representing world and national natural heritage for each country. Determining the importance of each source is carried out after applying historical, aesthetic, economic, scientific and ecological criteria. In order to unify the selection of representative springs by the experts from the different countries, the Advisory Board has proposed a methodology for preparing accompanying forms with complex information, including maps, photos, graphics and others. As a sample, two completed forms are attached to the adopted Methodology – for the Khanis spring, Iraq, proposed for inclusion in the Global List and for the Vrelo Mlave – for the National List of Serbia. In Bulgaria, it has been established that there are over 150 karst springs of regional and local importance on its territory. Part of the accepted general criteria is applicable to each of them with different weight. From these springs, after review and discussion of the existing information, it is planned to select a part of them for a more detailed evaluation and possibly their inclusion in an extended National list. The weighting of the various criteria will be determined and a summary assessment and ranking will be made based on it. On this basis, a National list will be prepared, which will include the most highly rated karst springs with the necessary illustrative material for each spring. This list will be presented to the Project Advisory Board and it will be discussed with them which of the springs could be included in the Global List.

Genotypic variation, phylogeography, unified species concept, and the ‘grey zone’ of taxonomic uncertainty in kānuka: recognition of Kunzea ericoides (A.Rich.) Joy Thomps. sens. lat. (Myrtaceae)

ABSTRACT In vascular plant systematics there are sometimes conflicts between phenotypic and ecotypic variation and genetic differentiation that challenge species concepts, introduce taxonomic confusion, and create nomenclatural uncertainty. Until a 2014 taxonomic revision that segregated Kunzea ericoides into 10 species, it and K. sinclairii were the only species recognised in New Zealand. A recent DNA microsatellite study failed to support any of the new species, instead revealing biogeographic variation. Here we present the results of a genotyping by sequencing study with 1,361 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), sampling 48 populations representing four Kunzea species from South Island and southern North Island. The SNP study confirms the microsatellite findings: the two widespread species, K. robusta and K. serotina, are indistinguishable and share northern and southern genotypes with other species; a single metapopulation lineage reflects a national north-to-south clinal pattern; and population differentiation is low and net migration high. A significant isolation by distance pattern was revealed with SNPs. The 2014 revision was explicitly based on the unified species concept, but the primary criterion, that each species represents a separate metapopulation lineage, was not demonstrated. Species recognition was based on morphological and ecological criteria that have proved difficult to apply. Applying the unified species concept and the primary criterion of a single metapopulation genetic lineage, we now recognise just a single New Zealand species, K. ericoides, with other species constituting taxonomic synonyms. In doing so, we distinguish a grey zone of taxonomic uncertainty that reflects incomplete lineage sorting, gene flow coupled with a lack of reproductive isolation, and only partial ecotypic and phenotypic differentiation. As demonstrated in the Kunzea revision, there is considerable phenotypic and ecotypic variation in regional populations that is likely to be of ecological and conservation importance. We suggest informal ecotypes are a better way to recognise this level of variation.

On simplification of the transport problem solution with ecological criterion

The possibility of neglecting the penalty component in solving the transport problem (TP) with an environmental criterion is analyzed, when, along piece-rate payment, fixed additives are assigned, due only to the fact of a specific transportation, and not to the amount of transported cargo (penalties). It was found that, while the threshold ratios of the standard deviations of tariffs and fines in a TP with a single optimal plan can be grouped quite tightly, in a TP with a non-unique optimal plan, their use is not effective due to the large spread. However, the possibility of applying the “looping” method proposed by the authors, when the TP is solved many times, in which penalties are added to the tariffs, divided first by the maximum possible transportation, then by the transportation plan at the previous step, allows neglecting the “penalties” if the loop ends at the first step. The disadvantage and reason for the approximate nature of the “looping” method is the possible presence of other cycles with local minima. The possibility of the “exclusions” method presented in the paper is also considered, when for a TK with n suppliers and m customers cells are excluded in descending order of fines if the remaining parts of capacities and capacities are sufficient. The ability to distribute transportation after R = (nm – (n + m – 1)) steps allows you to ignore tariffs when choosing a plan. The disadvantage of this method, equivalent to allocative least cost method is the possible difficulties in arranging transportations after R steps of exclusion made under the assumption of a “saturated” use of cells.