The East African Breweries Limited is one of the most notable beverage manufacturers in East Africa. This study aims to explore the company’s integration of sustainable accounting, especially given the paucity of information on how organizations incorporate the now popular environmental, social and governance (ESG) considerations. It is for this reason that this paper hopes to provide profound insight into the mater especially within the Kenyan corporate context. The author utilized a descriptive qualitative approach and used highly credible secondary sources, including sustainability reports, expert reviews, policy documents and recent scholarly materials. Thematic content analysis ensured the study identifies strategies used by companies currently, the most strategic integration frameworks and the impact of these mechanisms on stakeholder value and overall decision-making. Findings show that the organization has made significant inroads in implementing sustainability. Still, there are challenges that continue to face this process, including inadequate integration into the financial decision-making process and poor reporting. Undoubtedly, this paper valuable real-world recommendations for boosting integration of sustainability efforts into accounting and contributes to the current academic discourse on the significance of corporate sustainable accounting in East Africa.

Bridging the gap between academic research and practical implementation remains a major challenge in the transition toward sustainable urban mobility—especially in rapidly growing cities of the Global South. This paper examines the applicability of the Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development (FSSD) and its ABCD planning process in supporting real-world action in four East African cities: Nairobi, Kigali, Dar es Salaam and Kisumu. Drawing on participatory co-creation workshops, stakeholder interviews, and city-level strategy development, the analysis explores how systemic thinking and strategic dialogue can help identify critical gaps in governance, infrastructure, and institutional trust. The findings reveal that while many mobility strategies are visionary, they often lack integrated implementation pathways. However, elements of the ABCD approach were evident in practice, demonstrating how structured, participatory methods can build consensus, align actions with sustainability principles, and enhance local ownership. The study suggests that more systematic integration of the FSSD framework in implementation-oriented projects could further bridge the research–practice divide. This paper contributes to the literature on method application and research-practice translation, offering lessons for urban planners, policymakers, and researchers seeking to navigate the complexity of sustainable mobility transitions in developing contexts.

The study aimed to identify pathogenic variants in the CHST6 gene in a cohort of Egyptian patients diagnosed with macular corneal dystrophy (MCD). Sanger sequencing of the CHST6 gene was performed in 16 individuals affected by MCD from nine unrelated Egyptian families, as well as in their available first-degree relatives. Surgical management data for affected individuals were also collected. Nine different pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants were identified, three of which were novel. All affected individuals carried homozygous mutations, consistent with autosomal recessive inheritance. Parental consanguinity was documented in eight of the nine families. All patients required surgery to restore vision. The mean age at corneal grafting in the first eye was 32.7 ± 8.9 years (range 17-44 years). This study broadens the genetic landscape of MCD by identifying novel CHST6 variants in an Egyptian cohort. The high rate of homozygosity highlights the significant role of consanguinity in shaping the genetic burden of rare diseases in Egypt and the wider Middle East and North Africa region.

Abstract Taro ( Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) is one of the neglected root crops with great potential for ensuring food security. Nigerian taro genetic diversity has been rarely reported, particularly using single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. The objective of the present study was to determine the genetic diversity of taro accessions based on agro‐morphological traits and Diversity Arrays Technology sequence (DArTseq) SNP markers. Twenty‐five accessions collected from five states in Nigeria were used in the study. A field experiment was conducted at Ebonyi State University during the 2020 and 2021 cropping seasons using a 5 × 5 lattice design. Sequencing was performed at Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. The results for qualitative traits showed significant ( p < 0.05) differences among the accessions, with a mean Shannon–Weaver diversity index ( H ′) of 0.68. Most quantitative traits also showed significant differences among accessions. Genetic cluster analysis indicated the formation of two major clusters and confirmed the existence of variability among accessions. The polymorphic information content of markers ranged from 0.48 to 0.49. The taro population gene diversity/expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.24 to 0.26, while the observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.42 to 0.45. Analysis of molecular variance revealed high genetic variation among individuals within populations (86.90%) but low genetic variation among populations (13.10%). Therefore, breeding strategies should focus on exploiting variation within populations rather than between them. The findings of this study provide a foundational resource for the conservation, management, and utilization of these genetic resources to develop improved taro cultivars in Nigeria and similar agroecologies.

Replantation of an amputated finger is a complex microsurgical procedure that is rarely attempted in low-resource settings due to limited infrastructure and expertise. We report a case of complete amputation of a finger in rural Kenya that was successfully replanted during a humanitarian surgical mission. A 28-year-old man sustained a severe crush avulsion agricultural machine injury resulting in the amputation of all ten digits; only one digit was deemed suitable for replantation. The replantation was performed under loupe and microscope magnification by a visiting specialist team in collaboration with local staff. Intraoperatively, bony fixation with Kirschner wires, extensor and flexor digitorum profundus tendon repair, arterial and venous anastomoses, and neurorrhaphy of the digital nerve were achieved. Postoperatively, the finger survived with adequate perfusion. At one-month follow-up, the replanted finger was viable with progressing wound healing and early joint motion; further rehabilitation was arranged to maximize functional recovery. This case, which is, to our knowledge, one of the first documented digital replantations in East Africa, illustrates that successful microsurgical limb salvage is feasible in a non-specialized hospital setting. Our experience underscores that, with proper planning, training, and teamwork, advanced reconstructive procedures like finger replantation can be safely carried out even in resource-constrained hospitals, offering patients in low-income regions outcomes previously achievable only in high-resource centers.

Mosquitoes harbor diverse microbial communities that influence their potential to transmit pathogens. However, the ecological drivers shaping these microbiomes, particularly in under-sampled regions like Africa, remain poorly resolved. We conducted a large-scale metatranscriptomic survey of 3,940 Aedes and Culex mosquitoes from diverse ecological zones across Kenya. Our analyses revealed that viruses dominated the overall transcriptome, while bacteria exhibited the greatest taxonomic richness. Geographic location emerged as the primary driver of microbial community structure, whereas host genus identity shaped virome diversity at local or city-level scales. Culex mosquitoes harbored higher viral richness, particularly in coastal regions, while Aedes supported more diverse bacterial assemblages. Microbial co-occurrence networks exhibited distinct topologies across hosts: Culex networks featured cross-domain interactions and viral keystone taxa, whereas Aedes networks were more cohesive and robust, centered on bacterial hubs. We identified 102 distinct viruses from 24 families, including 31 putative novel RNA viruses. Segment-resolved phylogenies revealed cryptic clades within Bunyavirales, Picornavirales, and other lineages. Collectively, our findings highlight the scale-dependent influences of geography and host identity on mosquito microbiomes in East Africa and demonstrate the utility of metatranscriptomics in uncovering hidden microbial diversity and ecological interactions. These insights provide a foundation for ecologically informed arthropod vector surveillance and microbiome-based intervention strategies.IMPORTANCEMosquitoes are more than just flying syringes; they are complex ecosystems hosting a variety of microbes. Understanding what shapes this microbial world inside mosquitoes is key to developing new control strategies. Our study of nearly 4,000 mosquitoes from Kenya reveals that where a mosquito lives matters most for its overall microbial makeup, but its genus dictates which viruses it carries. We discovered that different mosquito types have distinct microbial social networks: one type has a fragile network centered on viruses, while the other has a resilient network built around bacteria. This means that strategies to disrupt disease transmission by targeting mosquito microbes may need to be tailored to a specific mosquito genus. Our work provides a map of these microbial ecosystems, highlighting potential new viruses and offering insights for future public health surveillance and interventions.

The burden of care for cancer patients in East Africa has, over the years, been exacerbated by limitations like the absence of comprehensive cancer care pathways, the lack of a specialised oncology workforce, and under provision of the necessary cancer medicines from national governments. The primary objective of this scoping review is to analyse previously documented research, synthesise the available evidence, and characterise these limitations based on individual demographic factors. Data from the appraised evidence alluded to the absence of a specialised oncology workforce, who were found to be centralised within urban centres, resulting in inequitable access to specialised cancer care among patients residing in underserved regions. The review also noted a significant trend of task shifting to the mid-level healthcare workforce, who lack formal standardised training. Similarly, most cancer care facilities were reported to have limited cancer care drugs and diagnostic commodities, with the available drugs being overpriced to match the huge demand. All these factors have a role to play in causing cancer diagnostic delays, and clinical expertise is moot, resulting in most patients being diagnosed with advanced-stage cancer with limited pharmacotherapeutic agents to see them through their disease cycle trajectory. Although most facilities are embracing task shifting and decentralised service delivery approaches, they often face financial constraints and supply chain breakdowns that incapacitate the sustainability of these novel approaches

Diarrheal diseases remain a major global public health challenge. Hand hygiene is one of the most cost-effective interventions for preventing the transmission of diarrheal diseases. However, billions of people around the world still lack access to soap and handwashing facilities. Using the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2021 database, we quantified the burden of diarrhea attributable to a lack of access to handwashing facilities across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021. We assessed disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), years of life lost (YLLs), and years lived with disability (YLDs), stratified by age, sex, Sociodemographic Index (SDI), and GBD region. Long-term trends were analyzed using age-standardized rates (ASRs) and estimated annual percentage changes (EAPCs). Potential non-linear associations were explored through locally weighted scatterplot smoothing (LOESS) regression. Globally, the age-standardized death rate (ASDR) from diarrhea attributable to the lack of handwashing facilities declined from 14.20 (2.10-26.04) to 3.04 (0.42-5.64) per 100,000 between 1990 and 2021, with an average annual decrease of 4.89% (4.64 to 5.14). During the same period, the DALY rate decreased by 76.6%, the YLL rate by 77.9%, and the YLD rate by 32.0%. In 2021, West and East Africa remained high-burden regions, with DALY rates exceeding 600 per 100,000. South Asia recorded the largest absolute number of deaths, with nearly 90,000 fatalities. Countries with low SDI exhibited an ASDR of 17.8 (2.51-33.44) per 100,000, approximately 60 times higher than that of high-SDI countries. Mortality risk was highest among boys under five, and the absolute number of deaths increased among adults aged ≥ 70years. YLDs were consistently higher in females than in males. Projections suggest continued declines in burden through 2035, although at a slower pace, especially in low-SDI settings. Although global diarrhea burdens tied to unavailable handwashing facilities have declined markedly since 1990, stark inequities persist across regions, age groups and development levels. Sustained expansion of WASH infrastructure, targeted hygiene promotion and strengthened surveillance are essential to accelerate progress toward zero preventable diarrheal deaths and universal health coverage.

In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), there is heterogeneity within adolescent mothers' (AMs') sexual relationships. However, existing studies focus on single relationship characteristics, even though these characteristics do not operate in isolation. Moreover, no studies have examined multilevel predictors of AMs' relationships. Identifying and characterizing typologies by multilevel factors can inform targeted interventions to lower HIV risk. Data are from the Population-based HIV impact Assessment (PHIA) Project on AMs (15-19 years) from 9 ESA countries (N = 2,761). We conducted multilevel latent class analysis to identify relationship typologies at the AM and community (PHIA cluster) levels, multinomial logistic regression to characterize typologies by multilevel predictors, and multivariable generalized estimating equations (GEE) log-binomial regression to calculate prevalence ratios of HIV for relationship typologies. There were 3 typologies: married with minimal transactional sex (61%), unmarried peer partnership (30%), and working and high transactional sex (9%). Individual-level (i.e., age, school enrollment, low-wealth household, number of sexual partners) and community-level factors (i.e., urbanicity and proportion of low-wealth households) were associated with typologies. Married with minimal transactional sex was associated with a 51% lower HIV prevalence compared to the unmarried peer partnership (adjusting for multilevel factors). We also identified 2 PHIA cluster-level classes: high age-disparate marriage (49%) and low marriage (51%). Low-wealth communities had higher odds of being high age-disparate marriage communities. Results suggest that AMs' relationships fall into 3 distinct typologies and 2 community-level classes. Further, HIV prevalence varies across relationship typologies. Utilizing tailored approaches could optimize interventions that reduce AMs' HIV risk in ESA.

Climate Change and Inter-Community Conflict in East Africa: A Systematic Review of Pastoralist Livelihoods and Human Security

Dementia and Parkinson's disease (PD) are among the most prevalent neurological disorders globally. Most previous research has focused on these two diseases in isolation; however, their co-occurrence has rarely been examined, limiting understanding of shared mechanisms and hindering integrated prevention and resource planning. This study aimed to characterize global co-occurrence patterns of dementia and PD from a spatial perspective and to identify the corresponding risk factors underlying this co-burden. We extracted incidence rates of dementia and PD and exposure levels of 58 detailed risk factors among individuals aged ≥ 55years from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 for 204 countries and territories. According to the quartiles of global incidence rates for both diseases, countries were categorized into three co-occurrence regions: consistent, dementia-dominant, and PD-dominant. Machine learning and negative binomial regression were used to screen and quantify key risk factors. A composite risk index was then constructed to assess the combined effects of these factors on global burden. Eighty-two countries were classified as consistent, 65 as dementia-dominant, and 57 as PD-dominant. The spatial distribution of these three regions overlapped substantially with exposure to health-related, dietary, and behavioral risk factors. Five risk factors were identified: high low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, alcohol use, and smoking as common factors; kidney dysfunction specific to dementia; and diet high in sugar-sweetened beverages specific to PD. High LDL cholesterol exerted the strongest effect on both dementia (RR = 1.12, 95% CI 1.07-1.17) and PD (RR = 1.16, 95% CI 1.09-1.20). The composite risk index showed a right-skewed distribution, with the highest values concentrated in Europe (e.g., Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia) and the USA, and the lowest in East Africa (e.g., Uganda, Zambia). This pattern closely paralleled the spatial distribution of incidence rates for dementia and PD. The co-burden of dementia and PD represents a growing global health concern. Geographic disparities are driven by both shared and disease-specific modifiable risk factors. Strengthening collaborative prevention strategies and optimizing resource allocation targeting these factors may effectively reduce the worldwide burden of both conditions.

ABSTRACT Objective The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region faces a critical neurointervention workforce shortage, with an estimated 115,000-130000 preventable deaths annually from treatable neurovascular conditions. We quantified training capacity, service availability, and implementation barriers across 19 countries encompassing 688.2 million inhabitants. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 168 eligible hospitals with 24-hour emergency services, neuroimaging capability, and ≥100 annual neurovascular admissions between May-August 2024. Primary outcomes were Neurointervention Training Access (annual fellowship positions/population-based demand using 2.5 operators per million standard) and Neurointervention Operator Availability (current operators/regional requirements). Multivariable regression identified training capacity predictors. Results Among 131 responding institutions (78%response rate), current capacity reached only 19.1% of required neurointerventionists for the region. Training capacity met 4.4%of projected needs, varying from 12.1%in high-income to 0%in low-income countries (p < 0.001). While 80.9% of hospitals performed neurointervention procedures, only 33.6% qualified as comprehensive centers. Among comprehensive centers, 72.7% hosted fellowship programs and 68.2%maintained 24/7 coverage. Significant predictors of higher training capacity included per-capita GDP (β = 0.012, p < 0.001), formal certification pathways (β = 0.285, p = 0.002), and emergency medical services protocols (β = 0.252, p = 0.01). Primary barriers were funding limitations (82.4%), equipment shortages (70.2%), and faculty scarcity (65.6%). Current training infrastructure produced 96 annual graduates against a projected regional deficit of 1434specialists. Discussion The MENA neurointervention capacity meets less than 20% of population needs, with pronounced socioeconomic disparities resulting in substantial preventable mortality and disability. Strategic expansion to 28 regional training hubs producing 171 annual fellows may achieve workforce adequacy within 8.4 years, requiring coordinated international investment and policy reform.

Cassava is one of the most important crops in global food security. It is the second most important staple crop in Africa. Its significance is enhanced by the fact that it very well tolerates droughts, and therefore it may be a prospective response to climate change in hot and dry areas. The potentials of cassava are under-utilized in Eastern Africa, and there is a lack of research studies regarding climate impacts on cassava yields in this region. The present research focuses on cassava production in Eastern Africa, analyzing the relationship of cassava yields, harvested areas, temperature, and precipitation from 1961 to 2023. The statistical analysis applies panel regression for the 63 years of time series, for the 15 most important cassava producing countries of Eastern Africa. Findings show that while the impacts of rainfall are insignificant on yields, the effects of temperature are significantly positive, indicating yield and area increases with warming climate. An expansion of the cassava growing area and the expanding rural population contributed to decreasing yields, probably because of the expansion of smallholder subsistence farming, suffering from to limitations in other farming resources. Therefore, even if climate change may benefit cassava production, other factors create severe limitations on improving yields. However, the positive response of the crop to rising temperatures is a clear sign that it is a useful choice for food security under climate change and would deserve more support from agricultural policymakers in Eastern Africa.

Abstract Urbanism shaped social, ideological, and environmental transformations on the tropical eastern African Swahili Coast from the end of the first millennium AD onward. However, it is unclear how settlement trajectories in this region compare with recently expanded understandings of urbanism within the contexts of tropical ecology globally. To address this question, I consider the biogeographical and sociopolitical conditions of urban growth in the region from AD 1000 to 1900, drawing from archaeological research around the city of Zanzibar Stone Town. Unlike other parts of the tropics, Swahili urbanization did not involve extensive landscape engineering, distributed urban networks, or low-density sprawl. Rather, mercantile, communal, and ritual activities drew people into dense, compact towns and cities that persisted through significant social and environmental transformations. I argue that the ethnographically derived model of the Swahili townland is a suitable framework for characterizing tropical Swahili urbanism. It featured compact, high-density settlement forms, managed tropical resource landscapes, and long-distance mobility and connectivity enabled by open, bilateral kinship systems. In the 19th century, however, globalizing forces drove deforestation and expansion into rural countrysides for cash cropping, setting certain Swahili cities like Zanzibar Stone Town on a trajectory toward their present-day sprawling, peri-urban form. Townland dynamics, featuring concentrated urban functions but widely distributed resource acquisition practices enabled by distributed social networks, may help explain urban growth in other parts of the tropics where dense, compact settlement systems emerged.

Background Every day we are faced with different treatment claims, in the news, in social media, and by our family and friends. Some of these claims are true, but many are unsubstantiated. Without being supported by reliable evidence such guidance can lead to waste and harmful health choices. The Informed Health Choices (IHC) Network facilitates development of interventions for teaching children and adults the ability to assess treatment claims (informedhealthchoices.org). Our objective was to develop and evaluate a new assessment tool developed from the item bank for use in an upcoming trial of lower secondary school resources in Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda. Methods A cross-sectional study evaluating a questionnaire including two item-sets was used. The first evaluated ability using multiple-choice questions (scored dichotomously) and the other evaluated intended behaviour and self-efficacy (measured using Likert scales). This study was conducted in Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda in 2021. We recruited children (over 12 years old) and adults through schools and our networks. We entered 1,671 responses into our analysis. Summary and individual fit to the Rasch model (including Cronbach’s Alpha) were assessed using the RUMM2030 software. Results Both item-sets were found to have good fit to the Rasch model and were acceptable to our target audience. The reliability was good (Cronbach’s alpha &gt;0.7). Observations of the individual item and person fit provided us with guidance on how we could improve the design, scoring, and administration of the two item-sets. There was no local dependency in either of the item-sets, and both item-sets were found to have acceptable unidimensionality. Conclusion Overall, the two item-sets were found to have satisfactory measurement properties. Based on our analysis, we consider these instruments to be suitable for our target audiences in Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda.

This paper explores how education and healthcare policies can reduce ongoing inequalities in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). We focus on different types of inequality, particularly educational disparities and healthcare access gaps, and examine how social policies in these areas have affected these issues. Using a comparative literature review approach, this study conducts a policy-oriented analysis of inequality in education and healthcare across MENA. Drawing on recent data and research, it evaluates the effectiveness of various reforms and programmes. The findings suggest that while economic growth has generally improved living standards in the region, the distribution of these gains remains highly uneven, with persistent gaps between affluent and marginalized groups. Policies that target education and health are crucial for closing these gaps: investing in quality education and expanding healthcare access can increase social mobility and fairness. The paper offers a set of coordinated policy suggestions—including expanding educational opportunities for disadvantaged populations and improving healthcare financing and coverage—to reduce inequalities. Ultimately, a comprehensive social policy framework, guided by human capital theory and social determinants of health, is vital for promoting inclusive development in MENA countries.

ABSTRACT The paper examines how public trust in Islamist parties has evolved since the Arab Spring in the Middle East and North Africa, focusing on perceptions of their institutional behavior and the extent to which they are seen as moderated actors. To demonstrate this, the analysis draws on Arab Barometer survey data and the results of the 2024 parliamentary elections in Jordan, arguing that political interest is the strongest predictor of trust in Islamist actors. In many respects, citizens do not evaluate Islamist parties on the basis of religious conviction or ideological orientation, but rather on their institutional behavior, mobilization capacity, and performance within highly controlled political environments. In settings where electoral competition is tightly restricted, such as Jordan, citizens may express support for Islamist parties not because they have undergone ideological transformation, but because they represent the most viable organizational alternative within an otherwise narrow political landscape. By emphasizing the conditional and strategic nature of public support, this study contributes to research on party politics and Islamist movements by showing that trust in Islamist parties increasingly reflects pragmatic evaluations shaped by structural constraints rather than deep ideological attachments.

BackgroundFollowing the global outbreak of clade II mpox in 2022 and the more recent emergence of clade I mpox in Central and Eastern Africa, mpox remains a significant public health concern both nationally and globally. During the 2022 outbreak, racial and sexual minority groups in the United States bore a disproportionate burden of disease, and mpox vaccine uptake was suboptimal among racial minority groups. In light of the ongoing low-level spread of clade II mpox, and the potential for future outbreaks, we 1) assessed the vaccination-to-case ratio for mpox, and 2) characterized factors associated with mpox vaccine uptake, in a cohort of Black sexual minority men (SMM) in Atlanta, Georgia.MethodsWe analyzed cross-sectional, self-reported data from 222 Black SMM, aged 18-44 years, enrolled in the HISTORY study in Atlanta. The vaccination-to-case ratio was calculated as the number of participants who had ever received the mpox vaccine divided by the number who reported a past-year mpox infection. We compared sociodemographic, sexual behavioral, and healthcare-related characteristics in vaccinated vs. unvaccinated participants using crude prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) computed via log-binomial regression.ResultsOverall, 134 participants (60.36%) were vaccinated against mpox (Table 1), and 13 (5.86%) reported past-year mpox infection, with a vaccination-to-case ratio of 10.31 (Table 2). Vaccinated participants were more likely to 1) identify as gay (PR 1.44; 95% CI 1.04, 1.99), 2) be a college graduate or higher (PR 1.36; 95% CI 1.03, 1.78), and 3) report previous mpox vaccine-related discussions with a provider (PR 1.90; 95% CI 1.28, 2.82). Vaccinated participants were less likely to have engaged with healthcare in the past 6 months (PR 0.71; 95% CI 0.54, 0.93).ConclusionMpox vaccine uptake remains suboptimal in this high priority group of Black SMM. The vaccination-to-case ratio for this cohort is comparable to a previously reported national estimate for Black males in 2022, and lower than previously reported for all other racial groups. Discussions with healthcare providers may play a significant role in improving mpox vaccine uptake in Black SMM.DisclosuresAll Authors: No reported disclosures

Abstract Urban areas are significant contributors to global CO 2 emissions, necessitating robust monitoring networks to accurately quantify and mitigate emissions. Atmospheric in situ observations provide high-precision data, enabling multi-year tracking of urban emission reduction trends. However, significant geographical disparities exist, with well-established networks in Western Europe, North America, and East Asia, while regions like Eastern Europe, South America, South Asia and Africa remain critically underserved. This review evaluates advanced global methodologies, informed by insights from ten long-term urban monitoring networks and research across more than 20 cities, focusing on urban background determination and the design of spatially resolved, city-scale monitoring networks, while assessing the impact of biogenic CO 2 fluxes on monitoring accuracy. We highlight China's rapid advancements in urban carbon monitoring and address ongoing challenges, such as the spatial separation of urban cores and industrial emission zones due to industrial relocation, and the blurred boundaries of carbon emissions in expanding urban agglomerations. Emphasizing the importance of customizing network designs to specific city types, the review integrates long-term global projects and emerging techniques to strengthen urban CO 2 monitoring frameworks. Challenges include expanding global urban network coverage, integrating top-down atmospheric measurement with bottom-up inventories, optimizing networks for diverse urban environments, and reducing uncertainties caused by meteorological and biogenic factors. Drawing on global best practices, we emphasize the importance of international collaboration, technology transfer, and data-sharing mechanisms. Tailored strategies are proposed to enhance and expand urban monitoring networks, which are essential for improving emission estimates, informing climate policies, and advancing global carbon neutrality goals. Graphical Abstract

Skin pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in patients with post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis.