Debris In Earth Orbit Research Articles

Dynamical study of low Earth orbit debris collision avoidance using ground based laser

The objective of this paper was to investigate the orbital velocity changes due to the effect of ground based laser force. The resulting perturbations of semi-major axis, miss distance and collision probability of two approaching objects are studied. The analytical model is applied for low Earth orbit debris of different eccentricities and area to mass ratio and the numerical test shows that laser of medium power ∼5kW can perform a small change ΔV‾ of an average magnitude of 0.2cm/s which can be accumulated over time to be about 3cm/day. Moreover, it is confirmed that applying laser ΔV‾ results in decreasing collision probability and increasing miss distance in order to avoid collision.

Drag sails for space debris mitigation

The prudence for satellites to have a mitigation or deorbiting strategy has been brought about by the ever increasing amount of debris in Earth orbit. Drag augmentation is a potentially passive method for de-orbiting in LEO but its collision risk mitigation efficiency is sometimes underestimated by not taking all the relevant factors into account. This paper shows that using drag augmentation from a deployable drag-sail to de-orbit a satellite in LEO will lead to a reduction in collision risk. In order to support this finding, the models that are needed in order to evaluate the collision risk of a decaying object under drag conditions are presented. A comparison is performed between the simpler Area-Time-Product (ATP) and more precise collision risk analysis, and the effects that are overlooked in the simple ATP calculation are explained.

Short and long term efficiencies of debris risk reduction measures: Application to a European LEO mission

Recent numerical studies indicate that the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris environment has reached a point such that even if no further space launches were conducted, the Earth satellite population would remain relatively constant for only the next 50years or so. Beyond that, the debris population would begin to increase noticeably, due to the production of collisional debris (Liou and Johnson, 2008). Measures to be enforced play thus a major role to preserve an acceptable space mission risk and ensure sustainable space activities. The identification of such measures and the quantification of their efficiency over time for LEO missions is of prime concern in the decision-making process, as it has been investigated for the last few decades by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC). This paper addresses the final results of a generic methodology and the characteristics of a tool developed to assess the efficiency of the risk reduction measures identified for the Sentinel-1 (S1) mission. This work is performed as part of the 34-month P2-ROTECT project (Prediction, Protection & Reduction of OrbiTal Exposure to Collision Threats), funded by the European Union within the Seventh Framework Programme. Three ways of risk reduction have been investigated, both in short and long-term, namely: better satellite protection, better conjunction prediction, and cleaner environment.According to our assumptions, the S1 mission vulnerability evaluations in the long term (from 2093 to 2100) show that full compliance to the mitigation measures leads to a situation twice safer than that induced by an active debris removal of 5 objects per year in a MASTER2009 Business-As-Usual context. Because these measures have visible risk reduction effects in the long term, complementary measures with short response time are also studied. In the short term (from 2013 to 2020), a better prediction of the conjunctions is more efficient than protecting the satellite S1 itself. By combining a better prediction with an enhanced satellite protection the S1 is estimated to extend its extra mission lifetime by 4% with respect to its nominal lifetime (7.25years).

A comparison of digital centering algorithms for high Earth orbital space debris

The applications of digital centering algorithms have a major impact on precise astrometry. In optical observations of space debris, due to the observing strategies and methods, the image degradation is distinct, which affects the centroid computing of CCD images. Adopting the four widely-used centering algorithms, including modified moment, one-dimensional Gaussian fit, two-dimensional Gaussian fit and median, tests are made on raw CCD images of space debris. With the observation positions obtained by astronomical calibration and the reference ones from ephemeris, the precision of variable algorithms and the influence of different threshold settings are acquired. The results indicate that the median reveals performs best for right ascension coordinates and others reveals a better results for declination coordinates. For Gaussian fit, no threshold may improve the centering precision.

Debris characterization techniques via unresolved long-wave infrared imaging from a space-based platform

Every space launch increases the overall amount of space debris, especially when circumstances result in the orbital objects being stranded in orbit with no deorbiting capabilities. Studies contributing to the understanding of space debris aid spacecraft operators in mitigating risk associated with Earth-orbiting debris objects. Accurately characterizing the debris threat to a spacecraft is of vital importance in maximizing the lifespan and mission capabilities of the spacecraft. This investigation aims to develop long-wave infrared radiometric-based techniques for detection and characterization of typical debris objects via signal analysis of unresolved imagery. Tumble rate, absorptivity-to-emissivity ratio, and cross-sectional area are analyzed and estimates made regarding their values. Fusion of astrometric and radiometric data allows for a more accurate, and less ambiguous, hypothesis to be reached concerning the cross-sectional area of debris objects.

Achievable debris orbit prediction accuracy using laser ranging data from a single station

Earlier studies have shown that an orbit prediction accuracy of 20arc sec ground station pointing error for 1–2day predictions was achievable for low Earth orbit (LEO) debris using two passes of debris laser ranging (DLR) data from a single station, separated by about 24h. The accuracy was determined by comparing the predicted orbits with subsequent tracking data from the same station. This accuracy statement might be over-optimistic for other parts of orbit far away from the station. This paper presents the achievable orbit prediction accuracy using satellite laser ranging (SLR) data of Starlette and Larets under a similar data scenario as that of DLR. The SLR data is corrupted with random errors of 1m standard deviation so that its accuracy is similar to that of DLR data. The accurate ILRS Consolidated Prediction Format orbits are used as reference to compute the orbit prediction errors. The study demonstrates that accuracy of 20arc sec for 1–2day predictions is achievable.

An adaptive threshold method for improving astrometry of space debris CCD images

Optical survey is a main technique for observing space debris, and precisely measuring the positions of space debris is of great importance. Due to several factors, e.g. the angle object normal to the observer, the shape as well as the attitude of the object, the variations of observed characteristics for low earth orbital space debris are distinct. When we look at optical CCD images of observed objects, the size and brightness are varying, hence it’s difficult to decide the threshold during centroid measurement and precise astrometry. Traditionally the threshold is given empirically and constantly in data reduction, and obviously it’s not suitable for data reduction of space debris. Here we offer a solution to provide the threshold. Our method assumes that the PSF (point spread function) is Gaussian and estimates the signal flux by a directly two-dimensional Gaussian fit, then a cubic spline interpolation is performed to divide each initial pixel into several sub-pixels, at last the threshold is determined by the estimation of signal flux and the sub-pixels above threshold are separated to estimate the centroid. A trail observation of the fast spinning satellite Ajisai is made and the CCD frames are obtained to test our algorithm. The calibration precision of various threshold is obtained through the comparison between the observed equatorial position and the reference one, the latter are obtained from the precise ephemeris of the satellite. The results indicate that our method reduces the total errors of measurements, it works effectively in improving the centering precision of space debris images.

An adaptive strategy for active debris removal

Many parameters influence the evolution of the near-Earth debris population, including launch, solar, explosion and mitigation activities, as well as other future uncertainties such as advances in space technology or changes in social and economic drivers that effect the utilisation of space activities. These factors lead to uncertainty in the long-term debris population. This uncertainty makes it difficult to identify potential remediation strategies, involving active debris removal (ADR), that will perform effectively in all possible future cases. Strategies that cannot perform effectively, because of this uncertainty, risk either not achieving their intended purpose, or becoming a hindrance to the efforts of spacecraft manufactures and operators to address the challenges posed by space debris.One method to tackle this uncertainty is to create a strategy that can adapt and respond to the space debris population. This work explores the concept of an adaptive strategy, in terms of the number of objects required to be removed by ADR, to prevent the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris population from growing in size. This was demonstrated by utilising the University of Southampton’s Debris Analysis and Monitoring Architecture to the Geosynchronous Environment (DAMAGE) tool to investigate ADR rates (number of removals per year) that change over time in response to the current space environment, with the requirement of achieving zero growth of the LEO population.DAMAGE was used to generate multiple Monte Carlo projections of the future LEO debris environment. Within each future projection, the debris removal rate was derived at five-year intervals, by a new statistical debris evolutionary model called the Computational Adaptive Strategy to Control Accurately the Debris Environment (CASCADE) model. CASCADE predicted the long-term evolution of the current DAMAGE population with a variety of different ADR rates in order to identify a removal rate that produced a zero net growth for that particular projection after 200years.The results show that using an adaptive ADR rate generated by CASCADE, alongside good compliance with existing mitigation measures, increases the probability of achieving a constant LEO population of objects greater than 10cm. This was shown to be 12% greater compared with removing five objects per year, with the additional advantage of requiring only 3.1 removals per year, on average.

Space Debris Measurement Using Joint Mid-Latitude and Equatorial Optical Observations

A system for orbital object monitoring is analyzed, based on a mid-latitude and an equatorial observatory. The enhancements with respect to the use of a single telescope located at mid-latitude, for space debris detection and tracking are highlighted in terms of surveying volume, object identification, and orbital determination accuracy. The need to improve observation capabilities in monitoring and cataloguing such kinds of objects is constantly growing, due to the constant increase of operative satellites and space debris in both geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) and low Earth orbit (LEO) regions. After the considerations on the feasibility of the whole system, an overview of the observatories' design is sketched, on the basis of previous Italian experience in space debris observation, and taking into account constraints imposed by the instrumentation. In particular the main characteristics of components, software for image analysis and observation methodologies are analyzed and a possible configuration is given, based on the ALMASCOPE observatory realized by the Space Robotics Group at the University of Bologna. This observatory was used for the 2010 test campaign carried out from the Broglio Space Center in Kenya.

The many futures of active debris removal

In the last decade, space debris modelling studies have suggested that the long-term low Earth orbit (LEO) debris population will continue to grow even with the widespread adoption of mitigation measures recommended by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee. More recently, studies have shown that it is possible to prevent the expected growth of debris in LEO with the additional removal of a small number of selected debris objects, through a process of active debris removal (ADR). In order to constrain the many degrees of freedom within these studies, some reasonable assumptions were made concerning parameters describing future launch, explosion, solar and mitigation activities. There remains uncertainty about how the values of these parameters will change in the future. As a result, the effectiveness of ADR has only been established and quantified for a narrow range of possible future cases. There is, therefore, a need to broaden the values of these parameters to investigate further the potential benefits of ADR.A study was completed to model and quantify the influence of four key parameters describing launch and explosion rates, the magnitude of solar activity and the level of post-mission disposal compliance on the effectiveness of ADR to reduce the LEO debris population. Each parameter's value was drawn from a realistic range, based upon historical data of the last 50 years and, in the case of post-mission disposal, a current estimate of the level of compliance and a second optimistic value. Using the University of Southampton's Debris Analysis and Monitoring Architecture to the Geosynchronous Environment (DAMAGE) model, the influence of each parameter was modelled in Monte Carlo projections of the ≥5cm LEO debris environment from 2009 to 2209. In addition, two ADR rates were investigated: five and ten removals per year.The results showed an increase in the variance of the size of the LEO population at the 2209 epoch compared with previous ADR modelling studies. In some cases, the number of LEO debris objects in the population varied by a factor greater than ten. Ten removals per year were not sufficient to prevent the long-term growth of the population in some cases, whilst ADR was not required to prevent population growth in others.

ON THE DETECTION AND TRACKING OF SPACE DEBRIS USING THE MURCHISON WIDEFIELD ARRAY. I. SIMULATIONS AND TEST OBSERVATIONS DEMONSTRATE FEASIBILITY

The Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) is a new low frequency interferomeric radio telescope. The MWA is the low frequency precursor to the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) and is the first of three SKA precursors to be operational, supporting a varied science mission ranging from the attempted detection of the Epoch of Reionisation to the monitoring of solar flares and space weather. We explore the possibility that the MWA can be used for the purposes of Space Situational Awareness (SSA). In particular we propose that the MWA can be used as an element of a passive radar facility operating in the frequency range 87.5 - 108 MHz (the commercial FM broadcast band). In this scenario the MWA can be considered the receiving element in a bi-static radar configuration, with FM broadcast stations serving as non-cooperative transmitters. The FM broadcasts propagate into space, are reflected off debris in Earth orbit, and are received at the MWA. The imaging capabilities of the MWA can be used to simultaneously detect multiple pieces of space debris, image their positions on the sky as a function of time, and provide tracking data that can be used to determine orbital parameters. Such a capability would be a valuable addition to Australian and global SSA assets, in terms of southern and eastern hemispheric coverage. We provide a feasibility assessment of this proposal, based on simple calculations and electromagnetic simulations that shows the detection of sub-metre size debris should be possible (debris radius of >0.5 m to ~1000 km altitude). We also present a proof-of-concept set of observations that demonstrate the feasibility of the proposal, based on the detection and tracking of the International Space Station via reflected FM broadcast signals originating in south-west Western Australia. These observations broadly validate our calculations and simulations.

Accurate orbit predictions for debris orbit manoeuvre using ground-based lasers

Orbit manoeuvre of low Earth orbiting (LEO) debris using ground-based lasers has been proposed as a cost-effective means to avoid debris collisions. This requires the orbit of the debris object to be determined and predicted accurately so that the laser beam can be locked on the debris without the loss of valuable laser operation time. This paper presents the method and results of a short-term accurate LEO (<900km in altitude) debris orbit prediction study using sparse laser ranging data collected by the EOS Space Debris Tracking System (SDTS). A main development is the estimation of the ballistic coefficients of the LEO objects from their archived long-term two line elements (TLE). When an object is laser tracked for two passes over about 24h, orbit prediction (OP) accuracy of 10–20arc seconds for the next 24–48h can be achieved – the accuracy required for laser debris manoeuvre. The improvements in debris OP accuracy are significant in other applications such as debris conjunction analyses and the realisation of daytime debris laser tracking.

A laser-optical system to re-enter or lower low Earth orbit space debris

Collisions among existing Low Earth Orbit (LEO) debris are now a main source of new debris, threatening future use of LEO space. Due to their greater number, small (1–10cm) debris are the main threat, while large (>10cm) objects are the main source of new debris. Flying up and interacting with each large object is inefficient due to the energy cost of orbit plane changes, and quite expensive per object removed. Strategically, it is imperative to remove both small and large debris. Laser-Orbital-Debris-Removal (LODR), is the only solution that can address both large and small debris. In this paper, we briefly review ground-based LODR, and discuss how a polar location can dramatically increase its effectiveness for the important class of sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) objects. With 20% clear weather, a laser-optical system at either pole could lower the 8-ton ENVISAT by 40km in about 8 weeks, reducing the hazard it represents by a factor of four. We also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a space-based LODR system. We estimate cost per object removed for these systems. International cooperation is essential for designing, building and operating any such system.

TLE-Aided Orbit Determination Using Single-Station SLR Data

It is difficult to use the single-station satellite laser ranging (SLR) data for orbit determination, due to the singular geometrical distribution of the observations. The single-station data produced by performing the diffuse- reflection SLR on the earth-orbiting space debris are therefore ineffective for orbit improvement. To solve this problem, we propose an orbit determination method by using single-station SLR data in aid of the two-line element set (TLE). For verifying its feasibility, this method is implemented and applied to the orbit determination of the satellite Ajisai, using the single-station SLR data of five passes in one day and the corresponding TLE. And on this basis, the five-day orbit prediction is generated, the result indicates that the errors of predicted positions are less than 40 m. In addition, the potential application of this method in the orbit improvement of space debris is discussed.

Assessment Study of Small Space Debris Removal by Laser Satellites

Space debris in Earth orbit poses significant danger to satellites, humans in space, and future space exploration activities. In particular, the increasing number of unidentifiable objects, smaller than 10 cm, presents a serious hazard. Numerous technologies have been studied for removing unwanted objects in space. Our approach is based on wireless power transmission technology using a short wavelength laser stationed in orbit to vaporize these small objects or to change the trajectory of space debris. This paper discusses the power requirements for space debris removal using lasers. A short wavelength laser pumped directly or indirectly by solar energy can scan, identify, position, illuminate, and eliminate the target through vaporization process or slow down the orbital speed of debris by laser detonation until it reenters the atmosphere. This feasibility assessment covers roughly the power requirement, laser system, and a potential operational scenario.

Controlling the growth of future LEO debris populations with active debris removal

Active debris removal (ADR) was suggested as a potential means to remediate the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris environment as early as the 1980s. The reasons ADR has not become practical are due to its technical difficulties and the high cost associated with the approach. However, as the LEO debris populations continue to increase, ADR may be the only option to preserve the near-Earth environment for future generations. An initial study was completed in 2007 to demonstrate that a simple ADR target selection criterion could be developed to reduce the future debris population growth. The present paper summarizes a comprehensive study based on more realistic simulation scenarios, including fragments generated from the 2007 Fengyun-1C event, mitigation measures, and other target selection options. The simulations were based on the NASA long-term orbital debris projection model, LEGEND. A scenario where, at the end of mission lifetimes, spacecraft and upper stages were moved to 25-year decay orbits, was adopted as the baseline environment for comparison. Different annual removal rates and different ADR target selection criteria were tested, and the resulting 200-year future environment projections were compared with the baseline scenario. Results of this parametric study indicate that (1) an effective removal strategy can be developed using a selection criterion based on the mass and collision probability of each object, and (2) the LEO environment can be stabilized in the next 200 years with an ADR removal rate of five objects per year.

Debris flux comparisons from the Goldstone Radar, Haystack Radar, and Hax Radar prior, during, and after the last solar maximum

The continual monitoring of the low Earth orbit (LEO) debris environment using highly sensitive radars is essential for an accurate characterization of these dynamic populations. Debris populations are continually evolving since there are new debris sources, previously unrecognized debris sources, and debris loss mechanisms that are dependent on the dynamic space environment. Such radar data are used to supplement, update, and validate existing orbital debris models. NASA has been utilizing radar observations of the debris environment for over a decade from three complementary radars: the NASA JPL Goldstone radar, the MIT Lincoln Laboratory (MIT/LL) Long Range Imaging Radar (known as the Haystack radar), and the MIT/LL Haystack Auxiliary radar (HAX). All of these systems are highly sensitive radars that operate in a fixed staring mode to statistically sample orbital debris in the LEO environment. Each of these radars is ideally suited to measure debris within a specific size region. The Goldstone radar generally observes objects with sizes from 2 mm to 1 cm. The Haystack radar generally measures from 5 mm to several meters. The HAX radar generally measures from 2 cm to several meters. These overlapping size regions allow a continuous measurement of cumulative debris flux versus diameter from 2 mm to several meters for a given altitude window. This is demonstrated for all three radars by comparing the debris flux versus diameter over 200 km altitude windows for 3 nonconsecutive years from 1998 to 2003. These years correspond to periods before, during, and after the peak of the last solar cycle. Comparing the year to year flux from Haystack for each of these altitude regions indicate statistically significant changes in subsets of the debris populations. Potential causes of these changes are discussed. These analysis results include error bars that represent statistical sampling errors.

Optical Observation of LEO Debris Caused by Feng Yun 1C

Many pieces of space debris are in low earth orbit (LEO), and may be a serious problem in the near future. They are very hazardous to spacecraft such as the ISS, in which humans stay for long periods. In January 2007, China performed an experimental destruction of the meteorological satellite FengYun-1C in low earth orbit using a ballistic missile. Optical instruments for space debris observation were installed on Mt. Nyukasa in Nagano Prefecture by JAXA, and the resulting low earth orbit debris was observed with the small telescope there. We have developed an image-processing technique, the line-detection method, to extract such effects as the streaks created by meteors, LEO satellites, and LEO debris. We succeeded in detecting the trajectories of specified FengYun-1C debris whose TLE were known. In this paper, the detection and observation of low earth orbit debris are discussed.

Erosion of POSS-polyimide films under hypervelocity impact and atomic oxygen: The role of mechanical properties at elevated temperatures

Low Earth orbital debris impacts on the external surfaces of satellites have increased dramatically in recent years. Polyimides are used as the outer layer of thermal control insulation blankets, covering most of the external spacecraft surfaces that are exposed to the space environment. A recently developed material, named polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)-polyimide, shows significant enhancement in withstanding the space environment. In this work, the combined effect of ground-simulated hypervelocity space debris impacts and atomic oxygen (AO) on the erosion of POSS-containing polyimide films was investigated. During such hypervelocity impacts, elevated temperatures, on the order of hundreds degrees, are formed. A laser-driven flyer system was used to accelerate aluminum flyers to impact velocities of up to 3 km s −1. The impacted films were exposed to an oxygen RF plasma environment, simulating the effect of AO in the low Earth orbit. Impacted polyimide films exposed to AO revealed synergistic erosion effect, while impacted POSS-containing samples showed improved erosion resistance. The increased erosion rate of the impacted polyimide film is explained by formation of residual stresses that affect the oxidation mainly by increasing the diffusivity of oxygen into the subsurface layers. Mechanical properties of the POSS-containing samples performed at 450 °C and fractographic examination supports the above hypothesis.

Ultra long orbital tethers behave highly non-Keplerian and unstable

Large twin tethers are investigated as possible competitive-cost tools for non-gasdynamic descent, landing, takeoff and return from target celestial bodies and as passive tools for debris retrieval from orbit. The particular behavior of orbiting bodies connected with long cables is a recent preoccupation in astrodynamics and proves being full of unexpected results. The investigation here presented is focused on the non-Keplerian behavior of such large tether systems, considered in a first approximation as rigid or very stiff and massless. The investigation starts with the feasibility of non-gasdynamic orbital deployment of twin tethers without any involvement of expensive rocket propulsion means. The free tether release systems are associated to a horizontal impulsive separation (HIS) and eventual friction-free deployment to the desired length. This horizontal deployment seems to supply the most productive means of continuous separation and departure of masses in orbit. The relative motion during separation is studied and the observation is made that a considerable kinetic moment of the system preserves during all eventual phases of the flight. After the friction-free deployment the extending cable is instantly immobilized at the so-called connection moment. From here after the tether length remains constant. The evolution of the deployed tether is followed in order to record the specific behavior when the length of the tether is extremely great. The motion of the two connected masses and of the mass center proves completely non-Keplerian, beginning with the libration around local vertical due to the considerable residual kinetic moment at connection. A practical application of the quasi-vertical libration is in orbital passive debris collector, when a sandwich composite large panel is orbited for long periods of time for collecting small mass, high velocity Earth orbit debris. The most promising and controversial application of such long tethers resides in the anchoring technique to achieve the skeleton of a future space elevator. The stability of motion is an important aspect which is approached my numerical simulations.