Early Proterozoic Crust Research Articles

Geochemistry of Paleo to Mesoproterozoic Metasedimentary Units of Chandil Formation, North Singhbhum Crustal Province: Implications for Provenance and Source Area Weathering

ABSTRACT The Mesoproterozoic metasedimentary units of Chandil Formation belong to the northern part of Singhbhum crustal province, eastern India. The Formation lies north of Dalma volcano-sedimentary belt and is separated from the Meso-Neoproterozoic Chhotanagpur granite gneissic complex (CGGC) by Tamar-Porapahar shear zone (TPSZ), i.e. South Purulia shear zone, (SPSZ) at its northern boundary. The metasedimentary unit comprises of quartz-mica-sericite-schist, quartzite, amphibolites and carbonaceous phyllites, which have not been studied well, so far in terms of their geochemistry, source rock and provenance characterization. In this work, the existing gaps in all those aspects are studied to infer the provenance of these meta-sedimentary sequences. The high silica contents of the Chandil Formation (∼95% for the quartzites and ∼70% for the metapelites) and low trace element concentrations indicate silica-rich source. The REE patterns of the quartzites and the metapelites exhibit LREE enrichment and HREE depletion with moderate negative Eu-anomalies which strongly favor felsic nature of the provenance. The significant enrichment of LREE, flat HREE patterns and negative Eu-anomalies of the metapelites suggest their derivation from an old upper continental crust, which is composed of felsic components and the negative Eu-anomalies indicate intra-crustal differentiation. The higher concentrations of the HFSE i.e. Zr, Hf and Ta, within the Chandil metasediments relative to those of EPC (Early Proterozoic Continental Crust), also suggests a felsic provenance. The geochemical signatures of the Chandil metasediments indicate that the sediments were derived during a prolonged period of weathering due to the slow upliftment and unroofing of the southern evolving Singhbhum granitic complex (SGC).

A possible model of the Paleozoic sedimentary basins evolution at the North African platform

A dual model of the Paleozoic basins development, disposing on the Late Proterozoic (Pan-African) and the Early Proterozoic (Eburnean) crust, has been proposed. The formation of the first group basins is connected with the subsiding of the sections of the cooling gneissic-domes of«rejuvenated» (Early Precambrian but tectonically reworked at the end of the Proterozoic) Pan-African crust. Accordingly, the development of the second group basins is a result of the Precambrian deep sited (mantle) magmatic chambers cooling and subsiding together with the sites of the old lithosphere, covering them. The manifestation of the Vendian volcanic units on Anti-Atlas, Ugarta, Regibat-Eglab uplifts is the most possible evidence of the mantle magmatic activity, which could create those chambers.

Sources of clastic material of the Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks of the Baikal–Patom belt, Northern Transbaikalia: Evidence from Sm-Nd isotope data

First systematic data on the variations of eNd(T) in the Neoproterozoic sedimentary sequence of the Baikal–Patom fold belt (Northern Transbaikalia) are reported. The range of obtained eNd(T) is–19.4…–2.0. It was established that the rocks of the Ballaganach and most part of the Dal’nyaya Taiga groups are characterized by eNd(T) from–19.4 to–16.3. Upsection, beginning from the Khomolkha Formation, the rocks show a sharp change in the initial Nd isotope composition (eNd(T)–8.3…–2.0). The results of Sm-Nd study of metasedimentary rocks of the BPB, as well as the comparison of their Sm-Nd characteristics with those of the inferred source areas suggest that the input of terrigenous material at the early stage of sedimentation in the Baikal–Patom belt was mainly related to the destruction of the Early Proterozoic crust of the Siberian craton. Owing to a change of sedimentation setting from passive continental margin to the “foreland” basin at the late stage, the terrigenous material of the Siberian craton was diluted by clastics from juvenile Neoproterozoic crust of the Baikal–Muya belt.

Multiple sources for the origin of the early Cretaceous Xinxian granitic batholith and its tectonic implications for the western Dabie orogen, eastern China

This paper investigates the petrogenesis of the Xinxian granitic batholith and its tectonic implications for the Dabie orogen. Two Xinxian granites yield Early Cretaceous 238U/206Pb ages of 122.7 ± 1.3 Ma and 123.6 ± 2.2 Ma. The granites are metaluminous differentiated I–type granites, with A/NKC ranging from 0.90 to 0.96. The chondrite–normalised REE patterns display significant LREE/HREE enrichments with moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Euδ = 0.30 ~ 0.85). The granites show enrichments in large–ion lithophile elements (LILEs, e.g. Rb, K, Th and U) and depletions in Sr, Ba and high field strength elements (HFSEs, e.g. Nb, Ta and Ti). Inherited zircons of different age (Neoproterozoic, one Early Proterozoic, one Archean and two Triassic inherited metamorphic zircons) are identified. The Early Cretaceous magmatic zircons contain enriched Hf isotopes with e Hf (t) values ranging from −26.9 to −18.7 (average = −22.5), more enriched than their probable alleged source, i.e. the Dabie Complex, represented by the Neoproterozoic and Triassic inherited zircons. Thus, the Archean and Early Proterozoic crustal materials may represent an enriched end member source for the parental magma of the Xinxian granites. Provenance analysis of the magmatic zircons in the North China and Yangtze blocks demonstrates that the Early Proterozoic inherited zircon in Xinxian has North China affinity. Thus, we proposed a multiple–sourced petrogenetic model for the Xinxian granitic batholith, which suggests that the batholith was formed by the remelting of a mixed crustal assemblage, including the Archean and Early Proterozoic crust of the North China Block, the Neoproterozoic crust of the Yangtze Block, as well as some Triassic collision–related ultra–high pressure (UHP) metamorphic rocks.

Crustal homogenization revealed by U–Pb zircon ages and Hf isotope evidence from the Late Cretaceous granitoids of the Agaçören intrusive suite (Central Anatolia/Turkey)

Geochemical and isotopic evidence from the Agacoren Igneous Association in central Anatolia-Turkey indicates that this suite of calc-alkaline granitic rocks have undergone crustal homogenization during regional metamorphic and related magmatic events. Whole-rock chemical and Sr–Nd isotopic data of the granitoids reveal crustal affinity with an earlier subduction component. Zircons show inherited cores and subsequent magmatic overgrowths. The laser ablation ICP-MS 206Pb/238U zircon ages are determined as 84.1 ± 1.0 Ma for the biotite-muscovite granite, 82.3 + 0.8/−1.1 Ma for the hornblende-biotite granite, 79.1 + 2.1/−1.5 Ma for the granite porphyry dyke, 75.0 + 1.0/−1.0 Ma for the alkali feldspar dyke, and 73.6 ± 0.4 Ma for the monzonite. This is interpreted as continuous magma generation, possibly from heterogeneous sources, from ca. 84 to 74 Ma during the closure of the northern branch of the Neotethyan Ocean. The oldest granitoids (84–82 Ma) were probably formed due to crustal thickening after obduction of the MORB-type oceanic crust onto the Tauride-Anatolide microplate. The younger granitoids are interpreted to be related to the subsequent post-collisional extension after lithospheric delamination. Combination of the laser ablation ICP-MS zircon Lu–Hf isotope data with the U–Pb ages of inherited cores suggests that Cretaceous granitoids formed by melting of heterogeneous crustal protoliths, which results in significant variation in eHf(t) data (from −12.9 to +2.2). These protoliths were probably composed of reworked Early Proterozoic crust, minor juvenile Late Proterozoic magmatic components, and Paleozoic to pre-Late Cretaceous recycled crustal material. Moreover, the Late Cretaceous zircon domains of the different granitoids are characterized by a crustal signature, with a relatively restricted zircon eHf(t) data ranging from −4.1 to −8.8. This variation is only about twice the reproducibility (ca. ±1 eHf) of the data, but much smaller than the isotope variability of inherited zircons. Our preferred interpretation is effective isotopic homogenization of the heterogeneous central Anatolian crust during the Late Cretaceous high-grade metamorphic and magmatic events, a process that we propose to be relevant for other active continental margins.

The first results of U/Pb dating and isotope geochemical studies of detrital zircons from the neoproterozoic sandstones of the Southern Timan (Djejim-Parma Hill)

This report presents the first results of U/Pb dating, isotope-geochemical, and geochemical studies of detrital zircons from the Neoproterozoic clastic rocks of the Southern Timan. Sixty-one zircon grains were treated, including 51 from red-colored sandstones and 10 grains from aleurosandstones of the Djejim Formation of the southern Chetlas-Djejim zone (Djejim-Parma Hill). It was found that the U/Pb-ages of zircons from the rocks of the Djejim Formation, varied from ∼2.97 to ∼1.20 Ga. The studies of microelement composition in 47 grains (of 61 U/Pb isotope ages obtained), on the basis of several empirical regularities found formerly, show that the detrital zircons had originated from “granites” (22 grains), “diorites” (12 grains), or their volcanic analogues, or more rarely, from “syenites” and “basites” (5 and 8 grains, respectively). The Lu/Hf isotope system of zircons allows one to estimate the model ages (TDMC) of the substrate magmatic rocks being parental to the zircons considered. In particular, Archean zircons are characterized by ∼2.84–3.36 Ga model ages of magmaforming rocks. For some of the grains, their model ages (∼2.84 Ga) are close to those of zircons as such (∼2.7–2.8 Ga), which points to the juvenile character of the substrate from which the parent magma of the zircons treated was fused. For Proterozoic (to Middle Riphean) zircons, the Lu/Hf isotope system allows one to estimate the model age of the substrate of their parental rocks within ∼2.00–3.36 Ga, which shows that these rocks were formed under the recycling of the Archean and Early-Proterozoic crust. The ages obtained for detrital zircons, as well as model ages of the substrate of the corresponding parental magmatic rocks, are quite comparable to the age of crystalline complexes of the ancient framework of the East European Platform (EEP), formed in the course of the Archean, Early-Proterozoic, and Early-Middle Riphean tectonomagmatic events. This permits us to conclude that the Neoproterozoic detrital complexes of the Timan were formed owing to the erosion of earlier Neoproterozoic and Early Precambrian complexes constituting the Neoproterozoic Baltica continent, presenting complexes of the passive margin of this continent. A variety of ages of detrital zircons from sandstones and aleurosandstones from the Djejim Formation of Djejim-Parma Hill, and of the estimates of magmatic rocks parental to these zircons, may be characterized as a Baltic Provenance signal.

Proterozoic evolution of the Nigeria–Boborema province

Abstract Structural, geochronological, geochemical and mineralization patterns in the Nigeria–Borborema province of western Africa and NE Brazil reflect a complex Proterozoic evolution culminating in the Neoproterozoic Pan-African/Brasiliano orogenesis ( c . 600 Ma). Reworking of the Archaean–early Proterozoic crust produced heterogeneous deformation exemplified by prevalent shears, migmatization, granitization and intrusion of large volumes of granitoids typical of a Himalayan-type thickened crust resulting from continent–continent collision. Dominant north–south to east–west structures, with prominent penetrative fabric and mylonitised wrench faults, refolded, transpressed, or even obliterated older structural trends, which are preserved in nappes of the central Sahara region (NW Africa to Nigeria) and in NE Brazil. Anatexis and recrystallisation were coeval with emplacement of Pan-African granitoids throughout this mobile belt. Bulk chemical modification, especially affecting magmatophile elements and REE patterns, attest to chemical exchange between Archaean basement and Pan-African/Brasiliano rocks. Older crust is present in both regions, including early (3.6–3.5 Ga), mid (3.1 Ga) and late (2.7–2.5 Ga) Archaean, as well as large areas of Palaeoproterozoic rocks reworked by the c . 600 Ma tectono-thermal events. The extent and interpretation of Eburnian/Transamazonian (2.1–2.0 Ga) events have not yet been resolved due to inadequate structural and isotopic data. Litho-structural control of Au, Sn, Nb and Ta mineralization relates to main or late-stage Pan-African deformation.

Late Cenozoic uplift of the eastern United States revealed by fluvial sequences of the Susquehanna and Ohio systems: coupling between surface processes and lower-crustal flow

Fluvial and karstic data sets indicating Late Cenozoic surface uplift in the eastern United States are modelled for the first time using a technique, incorporating coupling between surface processes and flow in the lower continental crust, which has been extensively used for modelling similar data sets elsewhere in the world, notably in Europe. Distinct phases of lower-crustal flow forcing, starting in the early Middle Miocene, Late Pliocene, and late Early Pleistocene, are evident, as observed elsewhere, and relate to combinations of cyclic surface loading (by sea-level variations and ice loads) and to variations in regional erosion rates, as elsewhere. However, the detailed uplift histories inferred are rather different from those indicated in many other regions, notably Europe, primarily because of different properties of the crust. In particular, in the Late Proterozoic/Phanerozoic crust of the Appalachians, the mobile lower-crustal layer seems to be relatively thick, causing a prolonged uplift response for each phase of lower-crustal flow forcing, whereas in the Early Proterozoic crust of the Yavapai crustal province farther west, underlain by a thick basal mafic layer, this mobile layer is much thinner, leading to a very different response consisting of abrupt alternations of uplift and subsidence, as is also observed in other regions of Early Proterozoic crust. Another important difference relative to western and central Europe is the much smaller number of terraces in the eastern US rivers that have been studied. The general applicability of this type of physics-based modelling technique is thus confirmed.

Preservation patterns of Late Cenozoic fluvial deposits and their implications: Results from IGCP 449

IGCP 449 (2000–2004) amassed data on fluvial systems world-wide, concentrating on key sequences, especially those benefiting from multiple lines of dating evidence. These archives are preserved either in terraced or stacked sequences, the latter confined to areas of subsidence. Terrace staircases record repeated incision (in response to progressive surface uplift), which, alternately with aggradation, is thought to have been climatically triggered. This triggering can be attributed to Quaternary (Milankovitch) climatic fluctuation, but the number of terraces produced in each Middle–Late Pleistocene 100 ka climatic cycle varies significantly between different systems. An unexpected result of this data collection has been the recognition of differing patterns of fluvial sedimentation and valley evolution over Neogene and Quaternary timescales, apparently related to different types of continental crust with different uplift/subsidence histories. These fall into three groups: (1) a typical uplifting pattern, with extensive terrace staircases of the type that dominate the global fluvial archive; (2) a subsiding pattern, with stacked fluvial sediments, usually coinciding with major depocentres; and (3) a stable pattern, with preservation of deposits related to channel diversion rather than significant incision. The third type, in which Early and pre-Quaternary deposits occur within a few metres of modern river level, is generally restricted to ancient cratonic or shield areas, which have apparently experienced minimal Late Cenozoic uplift, in marked contrast with most continental areas on more recently formed crust. There is also an intermediate situation, in Early Proterozoic crust, involving alternations of uplift and subsidence, with little resultant net vertical motion.

The lower crustal early Proterozoic metabasite-enderbite association of the Dzhugdzhur block (Aldan Shield): Its nature and origin of protoliths

The origin and growth of the continental crust is one of the main problems in the study of the Earth’s history. At present, the composition of the continental crust is sufficiently well known for the Archean shields, where the crust is exposed. Study of the Early Proterozoic sialic crust encounters serious difficulties because its fields are usually less eroded as compared with Archean shields and are overlain by Upper Proterozoic‐Phanerozoic formations. Researchers of Lower Proterozoic rocks on Archean cratons usually deal with either Early Proterozoic volcanosedimentary formations of greenstone belts related to intracratonic rifting or sedimentary fold‐thrust complexes. The Early Proterozoic crust developed between Archean cratons is observable only in some tectonic windows. Of greatest interest among them are deep-rooted blocks of metamorphic rocks with exposed lower layers of the Early Proterozoic crust, the igneous protoliths of which provide information on the early stages of its formation. Deep metamorphism settings of rocks in these blocks are confirmed by geothermobarometric data. We present the first data on the composition of the Early Proterozoic lower crust obtained for the Dzhugdzhur deep-seated block that was formerly considered an element of the Aldan Shield. In available tectonic maps, the Dzhugdzhur block is located in the southeastern part of the Aldan Shield in the KunMan’e, Ayumkan, and Maya river basins (Fig. 1). Based on published data and original field observations, we subdivided the stratified granulite complex of the Dzhugdzhur block into two sequences. The lower sequence is composed of hypersthene plagiogneiss‐ enderbites intercalated with two-pyroxene crystalline schists. The upper sequence consists largely of biotite‐ garnet, biotite, and biotite‐graphite gneisses with interbeds of marbles and subordinate enderbites and twopyroxene schists. Figure 1 demonstrates the distribution of these sequences. We define the lower sequence as the metabasite‐enderbite association. This paper is dedicated to description of this association.

Iridium anomalies and fractionated siderophile element patterns in impact ejecta, Brockman Iron Formation, Hamersley Basin, Western Australia: evidence for a major asteroid impact in simatic crustal regions of the early Proterozoic earth

A stratigraphically consistent <20-cm-thick unit of microkrystite spherule and microtektite-bearing impact fallout ejecta overlying volcanic tuff of the 4th Shale Macroband (DGS4) of the Dales Gorge Member (2.47–2.50 Ga), Brockman Iron Formation, Hamersley Group, Western Australia, displays anomalous platinum group element (PGE) and other trace metal patterns. The unit has high Ir (13 ppb) and Pt (35 ppb), and low Pd (2.7 ppb) and Au (1.55–1.88 ppb). The low Pd/Ir ratios and low Cr/V suggest depletion in volatile PGE and metals relative to refractory PGE and V, contrasted to the ubiquitous high Pd/Ir of most terrestrial rocks. Marked depletion in the volatile Rare Earth Element (REE) abundances in stilpnomelane spherule cores is consistent with this model. The loss of volatile PGE, analogous to relations in 3.24 Ga impact fallout units of the Barberton greenstone belt (S3 and S4), suggests fractionation related to atmospheric spherule condensation. The microkrystite spherule unit locally incorporate fragments and up to meter-scale boulders of banded chert and stromatolite carbonate, suggesting tsunami transport postdating spherule deposition. DGS4 microkrystite spherules are dominated by stilpnomelane mantled by K-feldspar shells, which consist of inward-radiating fibrous feldspar aggregates suggestive of devitrification. The K and REE enrichment of spherule margins are contrasted to flat REE patterns of the stilpnomelane cores, suggesting adsorption of lithophile elements during settling of the spherules through the hydrosphere. K-feldspar shells contain submicron-scale Ni metal, oxide, sulfide and arsenide grains and euhedral needles of feldspar-exsolved ilmenite. Associated magnetite may have high nickel (<1.25% NiO). The generally mafic composition of the spherules and high Ni/Cr and Ni/Co are consistent with a target mafic-ultramafic crust, consistent with the lack of shock-metamorphosed quartz. Mixing calculations suggest a contribution of 2.5–3% projectile component to the impact-generated volatile cloud. Conservative mass balance estimates derived from the Ir and Pt flux, assuming global extent of a 10-cm-thick spherule unit and chondritic projectile composition, suggest an asteroid diameter on the scale of ∼30 km. Similar estimates are obtained from spherule sizes, which in DGS4 reach a mean diameter of ∼2.0 mm in aerodynamically elongate spherules. The evidence implies formation of an impact basin on the scale of 400 km in simatic/oceanic regions of the early Proterozoic crust.

Geochemistry of Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks from the Birim diamondiferous field, southern Ghana: Implications for provenance and crustal evolution at the Archean-Proterozoic boundary

Metagraywackes and metapelites from the Paleoproterozoic Birimian Supergroup in the Birim diamondiferous field, southern Ghana, were analyzed for their major and trace element contents. Compared to early Proterozoic crust, the metasedimentary rocks are enriched in ferromagnesian elements but depleted in rare earth elements (REE), high field strength elements (HFSE) (with exception of Zr), and Th. They show REE patterns similar to their Archean counterparts. The chemical data indicate that the sediments were derived from a local source of mixed felsic—mafic composition, with the latter dominating. The source rocks were the basaltic to dacitic volcanic rocks and granitoids within the Birimian greenstone belts. The chemical data further suggest their deposition in a tectonic setting comparable to modern island arcs, and that minimal old upper crust (i.e., pre-Birimian sources) was involved in their formation. The analyzed metasedimentary rocks have Eu-anomalies and GdN/YbN, Sm/Nd, Th/Sc, Cr/Sc and Cr/Th ratios that closely resemble those of their Archean counterparts, and therefore inconsistent with models suggesting abrupt compositional changes in upper crust at the Archean-Proterozoic boundary.

The Blackstones Bank igneous complex: geochemistry and crustal context of a submerged Tertiary igneous centre in the Scottish Hebrides

The Blackstones Bank, located about 60 km WSW of the Isle of Mull in Western Scotland, is a submarine plutonic complex in the British Tertiary Igneous Province. Geochemical and isotopic analysis of gabbros, microgabbros and basic dykes shows that the magmas interacted strongly with crustal rocks during their emplacement. The isotopic signature of the contaminated Tertiary intrusions shows no evidence of any interaction with Archaean basement, despite the location of the Blackstones complex to the west of the Great Glen fault. Instead, the Blackstones rocks have crustal signatures resembling the Proterozoic basement and cover rocks of western Islay. It is therefore inferred that Early Proterozoic crust extends to the west of the Great Glen fault at this point on the Scottish continental shelf. In addition, the occurrence of similar isotopic signatures in Tertiary igneous rocks east of the Loch Gruinard fault confirms that Early Proterozoic basement extends under the Grampian block of mainland Scotland. When combined with published evidence from the Rockall bank, the new data constrain the location of an Archaean–Proterozoic crustal suture with a WNW trajectory which cuts across the continental shelf of northwest Britain.

Quantifying Precambrian crustal extraction: the root is the answer

We use two different methods to estimate the total amount of continental crust that was extracted by the end of the Archean and the Proterozoic. The first method uses the sum of the seismic thickness of the crust, the eroded thickness of the crust, and the trapped melt within the lithospheric root to estimate the total crustal volume. This summation method yields an average equivalent thickness of Archean crust of 49±6 km and an average equivalent thickness of Proterozoic crust of 48± 9 km. Between 7 and 9% of this crust never reached the surface, but remained within the continental root as congealed, iron-rich komatiitic melt. The second method uses experimental models of melting, mantle xenolith compositions, and corrected lithospheric thickness to estimate the amount of crust extracted through time. This melt column method reveals that the average equivalent thickness of Archean crust was 65±6 km, and the average equivalent thickness of Early Proterozoic crust was 60±7 km. It is likely that some of this crust remained trapped within the lithospheric root. The discrepancy between the two estimates is attributed to uncertainties in estimates of the amount of trapped, congealed melt, overall crustal erosion, and crustal recycling. Overall, we find that between 29 and 45% of continental crust was extracted by the end of the Archean, most likely by 2.7 Ga. Between 51 and 79% of continental crust was extracted by the end of the Early Proterozoic, most likely by 1.8–2.0 Ga. Our results are most consistent with geochemical models that call upon moderate amounts of recycling of early extracted continental crust coupled with continuing crustal growth (e.g. McLennan, S.M., Taylor, S.R., 1982. Geochemical constraints on the growth of the continental crust. Journal of Geology, 90, 347–361; Veizer, J., Jansen, S.L., 1985. Basement and sedimentary recycling — 2: time dimension to global tectonics. Journal of Geology 93(6), 625–643). Trapped, congealed, iron-rich melt within the lithospheric root may represent some of the iron that is ‘missing’ from the lower crust. The lower crust within Archean cratons may also have an unexpectedly low iron content because it was extracted from more primitive, undepleted mantle.

Nature and growth rate of the Northern Izu–Bonin (Ogasawara) arc crust and their implications for continental crust formation

The bulk composition of the continental crust throughout geological history is thought by most previous workers to be andesitic. This assumption of an andesitic bulk composition led to an early hypothesis by Taylor (1967) that the continental crust was created by arc magmatism. This hypothesis for the origin of continental crust was challenged by several authors because: (i) the mean rate of arc crust addition obtained by Reymer and Schubert (1984) is too small to account for some certain phases of rapid crustal growth; and (ii) the bulk composition of ocean island arcs, the main contributor to the Archean and early Proterozoic crust, is basaltic rather than andesitic (Arculus 1981; Pearce et al. 1992). New data from the Northern Izu–Bonin arc are presented here which support the Taylor (1967) hypothesis for the origin of the continental crust by andesitic arc magma. A geological interpretation of P wave crustal structure obtained from the Northern Izu–Bonin arc by Suyehiro et al. (1996) indicates that the arc crust has four distinctive lithologic layers: from top to bottom: (i) a 0.5–2‐km‐thick layer of basic to intermediate volcaniclastic, lava and hemipelagite (layer A); (ii) a 2–5‐km‐thick basic to intermediate volcaniclastics, lavas and intrusive layer (layer B); (iii) a 2–7‐km‐thick layer of felsic (tonalitic) rocks (layer C); and (iv) a 4–7‐km‐thick layer of mafic igneous rocks (layer D). The chemical composition of the upper and middle part of the northern Izu–Bonin arc is estimated to be similar to the average continental crust by Taylor and McLennan (1985). The rate of igneous addition of the Northern Izu–Bonin arc since its initial 45‐Ma magmatism was calculated as 80 km3/km per million years. This rate of addition is considered to be a reasonable estimate for all arcs in the western Pacific. Using this rate, the global rate of crustal growth is estimated to be 2.96 km3/year which exceeds the average rate of crustal growth since the formation of the Earth (1.76 km3/year). Based on this estimate of continental growth and the previously documented sediment subduction and tectonic erosion rate (1.8 km3/year, von Heune &amp; Scholl 1991), several examples of growth curves of the continental crust are presented here. These growth curves suggest that at least 50% of the present volume of the continental crust can be explained by arc magmatism. This conclusion indicates that arc magmatism is the most important contributor to the formation of continental crust, especially at the upper crustal level.

The persistence of off-cratonic lithospheric mantle: Os isotopic systematics of variably metasomatised southeast Australian xenoliths

The Re Os systematics of a suite of spinel peridotite xenoliths from southeast Australia provide insight into the effects of melt extraction and metasomatism on Re and Os and place strong constraints on the evolution and long-term stability of post-Archean lithospheric mantle in a tectonically complex region. Data from variably melt-depleted and non-modally metasomatised xenoliths demonstrate that Re abundances are largely controlled by melt extraction, with Re similarly distributed to Os. Ratios of ReOs correlate strongly with indices of melt extraction (e.g. Al 2O 3, Ni and Yb), and with the calculated bulk partition coefficient of Re, comparable to that of Yb over a large range of melt extraction (∼ 4–20%). Hence, if Re is controlled by sulfide phases, sulfur:clinopyroxene ratios should remain essentially constant over large degrees of melt extraction. Eight of the 24 samples analysed were wehrlites or apatite-bearing peridoties, representing residual peridotite which has interacted with a carbonatitic melt. In comparison with the non-modally metasomatised xenoliths, these samples show no evidence for disturbance of Os isotopic composition, or addition of Re or Os during metasomatism. The entire suite provides a 220 km long, WNW-ESE lithospheric mantle transect, east of, and perpendicular to, the presumed Australian Precambrian shield margin. The Os model ages indicate at least three episodes of mantle depletion: ca. 1960 Ma, 800–1000 Ma and < 500 Ma. The older age is found only in the two westernmost localities where a subset of four samples define a Re Os age of 1959 ± 100 Ma, with an initial γOs = +0.2. Although the oldest exposed rocks in the region are of Cambrian age, and the presence of early Proterozoic basement is highly contentious, the Os isotopic data require that early Proterozoic basement extends some 400 km further east than the easternmost exposed early Proterozoic crust. Model ages of 800–1000 Ma are common to all but one locality, indicating at least two melt extraction events in the western localities. Paleozoic ages are only identified in the eastern localities, suggesting the lithospheric mantle becomes younger to the east. Importantly, this and other Re Os isotopic studies provide increasing evidence for the long-term stability and persistence of lithospheric mantle of Proterozoic as well as of Archean age.

Late Archean and Early Proterozoic crustal evolution of the Mount Isa block, northwest Queensland, Australia

Recognition of Late Archean and Early Proterozoic tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite crust in the Mount Isa block, northwest Queensland, Australia, has important implications for Proterozoic crustal evolutionary models in the North Australian craton. Protoliths of the Black Angel Gneiss Complex formed 2.42–2.50 Ga (Black Angel Gneisses) and 1.97–2.00 Ga (Pothole Creek Gneisses). Both groups have Nd model ages of 2.42 to 2.58 Ga. Supracrustal components within the gneiss complex have Nd model ages of 2.75 to 2.83 Ga. These data, and inherited components in zircons, indicate the presence of even older Archean crust. Crystallization of 1.84–1.87 Ga rims record a thermal event during a subsequent period of granitic (Kalkadoon-Leichhardt) magmatism. Both the Black Angel Gneiss Complex and Kalkadoon-Leichhardt magmatic suite have strong arc geochemical signatures and have components that are compositionally similar to Archean tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite lithologies. A seismically defined, crustal-scale, west-dipping feature in the Mount Isa block may be a Proterozoic cryptic suture. Subduction-zone magmatism may be related to this feature. Late Archean and Early Proterozoic crust formation in this segment of the North Australian craton was subduction driven, involving assembly of microcontinental terranes similar to other Early Proterozoic belts. This observation is significant, because paleomagnetic data indicate that the North Australian craton and Laurentia were juxtaposed during Early to Middle Proterozoic time.

Continental accretion: contrasting Mesozoic and Early Proterozoic tectonic regimes in North America

Juvenile continental crust was accreted to southern and western North America during the Early Proterozoic and Mesozoic, respectively. Graywacke, granite, granodiorite, and basalt comprise most of the accreted Early Proterozoic crust, whereas graywacke, andesite, basalt, and granodiorite comprise most of the Mesozoic crust. In addition, carbonates, ultramafics, pelagic sediments, and tonalite/diorite are minor but important components in the juvenile Mesozoic crust, whereas rhyolites are important in the Early Proterozoic crust. Mesozoic supracrustal rocks vary significantly in chemical composition, while Early Proterozoic supracrustals have a limited compositional range and exhibit a linear relation between many element concentrations suggesting a genetic linkage between accreted terranes. Although SiO 2, Al 2O 3, FeO, and incompatible elements are more enriched in Early Proterozoic than in Mesozoic supracrustal rocks, negative Eu anomalies are typical of rocks of both ages. Early Proterozoic granitoids are enriched in LILE (large ion lithophile elements) compared to Mesozoic granitoids, and granitoids of both ages of are enriched in LILE and have larger Eu anomalies than associated supracrustal rocks. Accreted Mesozoic upper crust is similar to andesite in chemical composition, and the bulk crust is similar to basaltic andesite. In contrast, accreted Early Proterozoic upper crust and bulk crust are similar to granodiorite and andesite, respectively. Incompatible elements are depleted in the Mesozoic compared to the Early Proterozoic crust, but both crustal types have negative NbTa anomalies. Depending on the composition assumed for the lower crust, both ages of crust have either very small or negligible Eu anomalies. Lifespans of the Early Proterozoic terranes (time interval between oldest rocks in a terrane and its collision with North America) are 20–80 My, whereas lifespans of Mesozoic terranes are 50–500 My, with most falling between 50 and 200 My. Within Mesozoic terranes, tectonic setting may differ, whereas in most Early Proterozoic terranes tectonic setting appears to have remained the same. Unlike the Mesozoic terranes, which were fragmented during collision and displaced along transcurrent faults, Early Proterozoic terranes show no evidence of major transcurrent offset. Using accretion age windows of 120 My for the Mesozoic and 115 My for the Early Proterozoic, we obtain total crustal accretion rates of 1.33 km 3/y and 1.73 km 3/y, respectively, for 6000 km of strike length in each case. Early Proterozoic crustal accretion in southwestern North America was strikingly different from that in northwestern North America during the Mesozoic. Mesozoic accretion involves transformation of mafic oceanic terranes into continental crust. In contrast, most of the juvenile Early Proterozoic crust appears to have evolved directly into mature continental crust without passing through an ‘oceanic’ stage. This probably occurred in a continental margin arc system. Our results also indicate that oceanic terranes cannot evolve into continental crust as closed chemical systems. Although some Mesozoic oceanic terranes began to evolve into continental crust before accretion to North America, most of the transition occurred during and shortly after accretion. This may have been accomplished by incompatible element enrichment associated with subduction-related processes beneath collisionally thickened crust. The accreted Mesozoic crust has not yet evolved into mature continental crust and whether it will depends on the duration of subduction processes along the continental margin in the future.

Neodymium isotopic constraints on the protolith ages of rocks involved in Pan-African tectonism in the Mozambique Belt of Tanzania

Abstract Nd isotopic data from samples collected across the Tanzanian sector of the Mozambique belt indicate that the bulk of the belt consists of early Proterozoic crust which was tectonothermally reworked during Pan-African time. The only evidence for younger crust is preserved in granulite complexes that are surrounded by older amphibolite-facies gneisses. The uniformity of crustal formation ages of the gneisses across most of the belt indicates that models explaining the Mozambique belt as a tectonic collage of terranes with different pre-Pan-African crustal histories are invalid.

Orthogneisses in the Spessart Crystalline Complex, north-west Bavaria: Silurian granitoid magmatism at an active continental margin

The Spessart Crystalline Complex, north-west Bavaria contains two orthogneiss units of granitic to granodioritic composition, known as the Rotgneiss and Haibach gneiss, respectively, which are structurally conformable with associated metasediments. The igneous origin of the Rotgneiss is apparent from field and textural evidence, whereas strong deformation and recrystallization in the Haibach gneiss has obscured most primary textures. New geochemical data as well as zircon morphology prove the Haibach gneiss to be derived from a granitoid precursor, which was chemically similar to the Rotgneiss protolith, thus suggesting a genetic link between those two rock units. Both gneiss types have chemical compositions typical of anatectic two-mica leucogranites. They show characteristics of both I- and S-type granites. Rb-Sr whole rock data on the Haibach gneiss provide an isochron age of 407±14 Ma (IR = 0.7077±0.0007; MSWD 2.2), which is slightly younger than the published date for the Rotgneiss (439±15 Ma; IR=0.7048±0.0026; MSWD 4.9). Single zircon dating of six idiomorphic grains, using the evaporation method, yielded a mean 207Pb/206Pb age of 410±18 Ma for the Haibach gneiss and 418±18 Ma for the Rotgneiss. Both zircon ages are within analytical error of the Rb-Sr isochron dates and are interpreted to reflect the time of protolith emplacement in Silurian times. Three xenocrystic zircon grains from the Rotgneiss yielded 207Pb/206Pb ages of 2278±12, 2490±13 and 2734±10 Ma, respectively, suggesting that late Archaean to early Proterozoic crust was involved in the generation of the granite from which the Rotgneiss is derived. Although it is assumed that the granitic protoliths of the two gneisses were formed through anatexis of older continental crust, the relatively low 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios of both gneisses may also indicate the admixture of a mantle component. The Rotgneiss and the Haibach gneiss thus document granitic magmatism at an active continental margin during late Silurian times.