Early Neolithic Sites Research Articles

Economy and subsistence in the Early Neolithic site of Carrascal (Oeiras, Portugal)

Early Neolithic settlements in southwestern Iberia are rare and, so far, only a few faunal assemblages, mostly from Portuguese Estremadura, have been analysed. The zooarchae- ological studies suggest that animal husbandry was introduced to the area by Neolithic marine settlers originating from the Mediterranean and that domesticated animal herding, particularly sheep, was of outmost importance to the human communities. Located in lower Estremadura, Carrascal is an open-air site, featuring several dwelling structures, a diversified set of artefacts, and a well-established chronology for its Early Neolithic occupation (cal BC). It also yielded a faunal assemblage of considerable size and variability, which includes vertebrates (mammals and fishes) and invertebrates (molluscs). The present study, which focuses on the vertebrate materials, shows that during Early Neolithic the community that inhabited Carrascal practiced a diversified set of subsistence activities in which animal husbandry was prevalent. There is an abundance of caprines (mainly sheep) and swine, followed by cattle. The age at death data suggests a mixed animal exploitation system, with swine being mostly killed at a younger age (presumably for meat), while cattle was slaughtered after reaching adulthood (perhaps for milk production) and caprines show a mixed pattern. This study also reinforces the idea that, for the Neolithic communities living in lower Estremadura, hunting was a less prevailing activity (au- rochs and, perhaps, wild boar were identified, but red deer is absent in Carrascal) when compared with the human groups that lived in the central Estremadura Limestone Massif, a situation that may be due to different ecosystems and human demography.

A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of Early Neolithic Pyrotechnological Structures. The Case Study of Portonovo (Marche, Italy)

AbstractThe introduction of agricultural practices fostered the development of specific technologies for the new subsistence practices and the production of new artefacts. Pyrotechnological structures such as ovens are part of the Neolithic equipment and accompanied the spread of agriculture from the Near East across Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. Ovens located within settlements – mainly domed, above-ground structures – have been traditionally linked to cooking and baking. The function is usually deduced from techno-morphological traits, although experimental approaches or ethnoarchaeological observations have often been used. This article aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of the multidisciplinary approach to understand the function of fire structures. An integrated methodology that combines archaeological analysis, archaeometry, and experimental archaeology has been applied to study the underground ovens of the Early Neolithic site of Portonovo (Marche, Italy) dated to the sixth millennium BCE. Samples of hardened sediment of archaeological ovens’ inner surface and selected pottery fragments were analysed through X-ray powder diffraction to estimate the temperature reached. A life-size replica of an underground oven was then created to perform firing experiments, including pottery firing. Samples of the oven’s walls and experimental vessels were analysed with the same method, and the values were compared. Our results indicate that the Portonovo ovens are potentially multifunctional structures, built for about 700 years, always with the same technique exploiting the natural soil’s insulating properties.

The Routes of Neolithisation: The Middle Struma Valley from a Regional Perspective

AbstractThe frontier position of the Balkan Peninsula, next to Anatolia and the Aegean, emphasises its key importance for the study of the Neolithisation processes taking place in Europe during the seventh–sixth millennia BC. A look at the distribution of most Early Neolithic sites along the submeridional alluvial plains of its central mountainous part often leaves the impression that the valleys of the Vardar, Struma, Mesta and Maritsa rivers functioned as natural corridors, allowing for the rapid advance of the farming way of life towards the interior regions of Europe. However, comparative analysis of the distribution patterns of specific diagnostic components of Early Neolithic cultures, such as white painted pottery, anthropomorphic figurines and miniature “cult tables”, from the Early Neolithic settlements in the Middle Struma Valley, southwestern Bulgaria, namely Kovachevo, Ilindentsi, Brezhani, Drenkovo and Balgarchevo I shows a rather unexpected direction and dynamic of cultural/social contact during this crucial period.

Early Neolithic Settlement Patterns in Northern Dalmatia

Abstract This article focuses on the early Neolithic settlement patterns in northern Dalmatia, located in the middle of the eastern Adriatic. At the present state of research, a total of 35 Neolithic sites have been known in this region, 26 of which belong to the Early Neolithic. Observing the type and character of the early Neolithic sites, their micro-topographic features, proximity and availability of resources, organization of life in relation to environment requirements, continuity of life at a particular location, and economic strategies, we come to the conclusion that the early Neolithic settlement patterns in northern Dalmatia were determined by natural landscape and its resources. They are the postulate and basis for the development of different aspects of social life and economy, as well as the starting point for the interpretation of the character and dynamics of the development of the early Neolithic communities in this area. The site locations, stratigraphic relations, and radiocarbon dating also suggest movements of the early Neolithic communities. The movements seem to have taken place exclusively within the fields. Discussion whether it was one or several simultaneous communities/settlements remains limited, since the state of research does not allow precise attribution of the site to certain chronological segments of the Early Neolithic.

Manufacturing traces and pot-forming processes during the Early Neolithic at Cueva de El Toro (Málaga, Spain, 5280–4780 BCE)

This paper reports the results of forming processes used in pottery manufacture at La Cueva de El Toro (Málaga, Spain) during the Early Neolithic (5280–4780 cal. BCE). La Cueva de El Toro is one of the most important sites of reference on the southern Iberian Peninsula for providing extensive and systematised data on early farming practices. The identification of manufacturing traces on pottery has enabled the assessment of the variability of forming techniques used by the communities of herders that seasonally inhabited the cave during the Early Neolithic. Forming processes were also compared with characteristic features of pottery products (typology, decorations) that are representative of the first pottery production in this area. Furthermore, this study provides new insights into the distribution of the first pot-forming processes in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, which suggest the use of similar techniques to the forming-sequences documented at other Early Neolithic sites (the use of coils and circular patches) and other forming processes (moulding process and the use of discs) which are still unknown in the Western Mediterranean.

Stable isotope analysis of human bone from Ganj Dareh, Iran, ca. 10,100 calBP.

We report here on stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope values from bone collagen of human (n = 20) and faunal (n = 11) remains from the Early Neolithic site of Ganj Dareh, Iran, dating to ca. 10,100 cal. BP. Our focus explores how isotope values of human bone vary by age and sex, and evaluates dietary practices at this site. It also provides a baseline for future studies of subsistence in the early Holocene Central Zagros Mountains, from the site with the first evidence for human ovicaprid management in the Near East. Human remains include individuals of all age groups for dietary reconstruction, as well two Ottoman intrusive burials for temporal and cultural comparison. All analyzed individuals exhibited δ13C and δ15N values consistent with a diet based heavily on C3 terrestrial sources. There is no statistically significant difference between the isotopic compositions of the two sexes, though males appear to show larger variations compared to females. Interesting patterns in the isotopic compositions of the subadults suggested weaning children may be fed with supplements with distinctive δ13C values. Significant difference in sulfur isotope values between humans and fauna could be the earliest evidence of transhumance and could identify one older adult male as a possible transhumant shepherd. Both Ottoman individuals had distinctively different δ13C, δ15N, and δ34S values compared to the Neolithic individuals. This is the first large scale analysis of human stable isotopes from the eastern end of the early Holocene Fertile Crescent. It provides a baseline for future intersite exploration of stable isotopes and insight into the lifeways, health, and processes of neolithisation associated with the origins of goat domestication at Ganj Dareh and the surrounding Central Zagros.

Construction features of the dwelling at the early Neolithic site Baibek in the North Caspian Sea Region

This work studies construction features of the dwelling discovered at the Neolithic site Baibek. Detailed recorded data made it possible to determine its dimensions, shape and structural components. The layer by layer analysis gave grounds to reconstruct its origin and development. Pottery and stone tools, as well as other materials of the cultural layer found in the dwelling pit are similar to the materials of the Kairshak type of the Neolithic in the Northern Caspian Sea Region. A series of radiocarbon dates establishes the chronological interval of the dwelling functioning: the first quarter of the VI millennium BC. The results of spores and pollen analysis indicate the paleogeographic background at that time. The definition of faunal remains indicates the leading hunting species: onager, red deer, corsac, saiga; fish (sterlet, perch, pike, common carp, pike perch) were caught both in open and in closed reservoirs. Judging by the analysis of the crust on the inner side of the vessels, signs of animal and plant food preparation have been established. The studied dwelling complements the characteristics of the Neolithic culture of the Kairshak type bearers and possibly marks the beginning of the transition of the population to a certain sedentary life. In addition, the information obtained gives reasons to speak about the appearance of dwellings in the region of interest starting from the early Neolithic.

THE FORMATION OF EARLY NEOLITHIC COMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL ZAGROS: AN 11,500 YEAR‐OLD COMMUNAL STRUCTURE AT ASIAB

SummaryCommunal buildings have been reported from a number of early Neolithic sites from the Levant and Anatolia, but none were known from the central Zagros. Here we report on the recent excavations at Asiab, Kermanshah province, Iran, and argue that the principal feature found during Robert Braidwood’s excavation at the site in 1960 should be interpreted as an example of a communal building. We discuss the results of the previous and recent excavations, highlight the key features of this building, and the implications for our understanding of the early Neolithic in the ‘eastern wing’ of the Fertile Crescent.

Технологические особенности ранней керамики Северо-Восточного Китая

This article investigates the materials from recent excavations of the Neolithic sites in the Northeastern China, where the pottery dated back to more than 10,000 years BP was discovered. The author considered two early Neolithic sites in the Nenjiang River basin in the territory of modern Jilin province, Houtaomuga (its earliest layer), Shuangta, as well as the later one, Changtuozi-3. The comparison with the traditions of the archaeological cultures of the adjacent territories of the Russian Far East could make it possible to clarify the distribution of ancient pottery in the region. The most credible similarities come from the cultures of Amur River valley, the Osipovka and Gromatukha, Novopetrovka, Mariinskoye cultures. The earliest materials of the Houtaomuga Phase 1 generally fit into the gap between these cultures and the later North Chinese ones. The following conclusions were made as a result of the investigations: 1. The main unifying feature for all these ceramic traditions is the addition of organic materials (grounded grass and, less often, crushed shell); 2. The most typical forms of the early Neolithic in this region are flat-bottomed cylindrical or truncated-conical pots; 3. The ceramics was constructed by slab construction methods or a mold base; 4. Similar ornament motives were made with a comb stamp and various combinations of comb patterns; 5. Typical features for later ceramics are ornamentation with molded rolls, sometimes dissected or decorated with impressions. The early ceramics of the two regions is rather similar and obviously differs greatly from the pointed or round-bottomed pottery examples from Transbaikal, the Japanese archipelago, and southern China. The highlighted common features indicate a certain continuity of the traditions of ceramic production in the region.

СТРАТИГРАФИЧЕСКИЕ НАБЛЮДЕНИЯ НА НЕОЛИТИЧЕСКОЙ СТОЯНКЕ ТАРТАС-1 (БАРАБИНСКАЯ ЛЕСОСТЕПЬ). ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА ЗАХОРОНЕНИЙ, ПЕРЕРЕЗАЮЩИХ РАННИЙ КУЛЬТУРНЫЙ СЛОЙ ПАМЯТНИКА

Burial complexes dating back from the Neolithic era to the early-developed Bronze Age have been analyzed. The complexes were revealed at the Early Neolithic site of the Tartas-1 area in the Baraba forest-steppe. The site is represented by two housing buildings and a set of special pits intended for fish fermentation. The peculiar dishes, stone and bone tools, as well as the ritual burials of animals (treasure troves/offerings), made it possible to speak about a previously unknown culture of the Neolithic era called the Baraba Neolithic culture. The necropolises of various chronological periods were periodically constructed in the settlement area. The primary aim of the study was to compile the most complete summary of these burials showing the relative chronology of these objects. The Neolithic burial is the earliest. According to the radiocarbon dating, it dates back to the middle of the 5th millennium BC. This date is much later than the set of early dates received at the Neolithic site, the layer of which the burial cuts. The specificity of the burial practice does not allow making direct analogies with the famous Neolithic burial grounds. This may indicate the future identification of a special cultural and chronological layer, which may have occurred in the Neolithic era of this region. One burial is related to the early-developed Bronze Age (the Odinov culture), as evidenced by the specifics of the burial practice and the inventory. The relative chronology of this burial is clearly emphasized by the fact that the grave was cut by the burial of the Andronovo (Fedorovo) culture. The remaining 18 burials belong to the Andronovo (Fedorovo) culture. Two funeral complexes belong to the same period. Two rows of graves are traced; they are located along the edge of the terrace, parallel to each other. Two funeral complexes, in which the grave was surrounded by an intermittent ring-shaped ditch, are integrated in the upper row system. A distinctive feature of this area of the Andronovo cemetery is the presence of children’s and adults’ graves at the same time. Children’s burials are not planographically differentiated. There are both single and collective tombs. The accompanying inventory found in the graves is common to the Andronovo (Fedorovo) complexes; these are ceramic vessels, bronze cast biconical beads, temple rings, sewn plaques, as well as drilled astragali. The investigated funeral complexes include 20 burials and architectural structures (ditches) accompanying individual burials. To varying degrees, these complexes cut the cultural layer of the Neolithic site and have a later chronological position.

Ground and abrasive stone tools from the Early Neolithic site of Bataševo (Serbia)

Cercetările arheologice preventive de la Bataševo în centrul Serbiei au indicat prezența unui sit pluri-stratificat, cu urme de locuire pornind din neoliticul timpuriu până în epoca bronzului și apoi din perioada romană până în evul mediu. Cele mai importante descoperiri și informații atribuite neoliticului timpuriu provin din strada Makedosnka, secțiunile 2/ 06, 1/ 07 și 2/ 07, unde a fost descoperit un nivel neolitic timpuriu de 1– 1,5 m grosime. Materialul arheologic (piese de piatră, ceramică și obiecte de cult realizate din os, precum și resturi faunistice) și complexele și structurile de locuire sugerează că pe durata neoliticului timpuriu Bataševo era o așezare bine dezvoltată ai cărei locuitori se ocupau alături de creșterea animalelor și agricultură, și de producția de obiecte de piatră, os, ceramică etc. Piesele aparținând industriei pietrei șlefuite, împreună cu materiile prime folosite, modul de producere și de consum, repararea și reciclarea lor, oferă o imagine completă a tehnologiei neolitice timpurii și a modului de utilizare a uneltelor, asemănătoare cu cea observată în alte părți din zona de centru a Balcanilor. Singurele caracteristici remarcabile sunt gradul mare de fragmentare al uneltelor (observat și la Aria Babi, Porțile de Fier) și existența unor piese de piatră specializate pentru producerea uneltelor de piatră. Dată fiind aria relativ mică investigată până acum (35m2) nu putem vorbi despre specializarea producției pentru un anumit tip de piese, întrucât nu a fost descoperit nici un atelier.

Novopetrovka III—an Early Neolithic Site in the Western Amur Basin and Its Chronology

This article discusses the chronology of Novopetrovka III—a Neolithic settlement in the Western Amur basin, evaluated by the radiocarbon analysis of charred remains on pottery. The Novopetrovka culture as a whole, represented by Novopetrovka I-III and Konstantinovka sites, which had been excavated in the early 1960s, was dated to the 5th (possibly 6th) to early 4th millennia BC on the basis of the typology of the blade industry. The overview of data on prismatic blades manufactured by the pressure technique demonstrated that blade industries appeared in a vast territory of Eurasia in the Final Pleistocene to Early Holocene and, in certain regions, survived until the Chalcolithic. Therefore, they are only a rough guide to the relative chronology of the sites. In the 1990s, after the appearance of radiocarbon dates generated from samples of organic remains in temper and charred remains on pottery from Novopetrovka II, the culture was redated to 15.5-10.8 cal BP. A comparative analysis of new radiocarbon dates based on charred remains on pottery suggests that the age of Novopetrovka III is 9.0-9.5 thousand years. Because no changes were traced in the Novopetrovka sites over a long period of time, the chronological assessment of the Novopetrovka culture in toto and of its separate sites is problematic.

Buxus sempervirens and Laurus nobilis leaves from an archaeological site at 7300 cal BP (La Draga, Spain) provide a better understanding of past vegetation and human activities

Leaves are valuable, but very rare, remains in archaeological contexts, as they can provide precise information on the landscape vegetation composition, the past climatic conditions and the use of plant resources in a settlement. La Draga (Spain) is an early Neolithic site partially waterlogged, which has allowed the preservation of organic material. During the excavation of the oldest level (7300–7000 cal BP), we recovered 29 leaf samples in an optimal state of preservation. Here we explore the potential of these leaves as indicators both of the use of vegetation at the settlement and of past climatic conditions. Firstly, we determined the species identity by comparing the leaf morphological and microanatomical traits with those of contemporary individuals. Secondly, we analyzed the leaf stomatal patterning (stomatal density, index, and size) as proxies of paleoclimate during the Neolithic, when lower atmospheric CO2 and wetter conditions are documented. The leaves of La Draga were identified as Laurus nobilis and Buxus sempervirens, two evergreen species well documented at the site from other archaeobotanical records, such as charcoal and wooden implements. We found no differences in stomatal traits between the archaeological and the contemporary leaves of L. nobilis and B. sempervirens, which shows the limitation of stomatal frequency as proxies for CO2. The presence of these species at the site provides good complementary data for past woodland vegetation composition and the production of wood implements. The wide distribution of L. nobilis leaves across the site suggests that this taxon was present in the riparian forest at the site surroundings. In contrast, leaves of B. sempervirens were grouped together, which might indicate that they belonged to the same branch, probably transported as raw material from nearby forests to the settlement. This study illustrates the value of archaeological leaves to provide a better understanding on the past vegetation and human activities.

The basketry at the early Neolithic site of La Draga (Banyoles, Spain)

The goal of this work is provide new data about early basketry techniques based on remains found at the site of La Draga (Banyoles, Spain). La Draga has yielded a series of basketry fragments dated to 5300–5000 cal. BC that introduce novel information about the use of natural materials to make baskets and the techniques involved in their fabrication. The 34 fragments of basketry were recovered from waterlogged levels. All the remains of basketry found at La Draga were made with the same sewn coiled technique, although variations are seen in the type of stitches. The inhabitants of La Draga used a limited number of species for basket-making: monocotyledons, lime bast fibres and hazel wands. The technology, number of individuals and function are discussed in this paper.

The Beginning of the Neolithic in Southeast Anatolia

New research in southeastern Anatolia at Early Neolithic sites has brought a fresh perspective on the emergence of the Neolithic way of life in southwest Asia. In addition to providing more details on the transition to settled life, food production, and technological innovations, this more recent work has increased our understanding of both the time span and geography of the last hunter-gatherers and the earliest farmers in the wider region. Now the picture of the beginning of the Neolithic is more complex and fragmented. This complexity necessitates a multifaceted approach to the questions of the emergence of the Neolithic. In this regard, the data coming from Pre-Pottery Neolithic A sites in southeastern Anatolia, particularly in the Upper Tigris Basin, is remarkable. In this paper the transitional stage to the Neolithic in the region and new data from Gusir Höyük is discussed according to the architectural data.

Revealing the “hidden” Pannonian and Central Balkan Mesolithic: new radiocarbon evidence from Serbia

With the exception of the well known Mesolithic sites in the Danube Gorges (or the Iron Gates), the wider areas of the Central Balkans and southern fringes of the Great Pannonian Plain still represent a terra incognita when it comes to the presence of Mesolithic communities. The absence of Mesolithic sites in the region was associated with environmental changes in the Early Holocene, presumed low human population densities, limited possibilities of detection, or the lack of adequate research. However, valuable insights into the obscure regional Mesolithic can be gained not only by new archaeological excavations, but also by revisiting and reanalysing of existing archaeological collections. Particularly informative in this respect are the Early Neolithic sites, indicative of the extensive spread of farming communities from c. 6200 cal BC. Within the ERC Project BIRTH, a large sample of human and animal remains from these sites was dated, falling in the (expected) range between c. 6200‒5300 cal BC. However, one human and several animal bone samples from the sites of Magareći mlin, Gospođinci-Nove zemlje and Grabovac-Đurića vinogradi were dated to the 8th millennium cal BC, providing the first radiocarbon evidence of Early Holocene sequences in the territory of Serbia other than the Danube Gorges. In this paper, we present the new radiocarbon dates, discuss the contextual provenance of dated bones, and explore the implications of these results for a better understanding of the problem of the “missing” and “invisible” Mesolithic in the region.

Investigating the function of Pre-Pottery Neolithic stone troughs from Göbekli Tepe – An integrated approach

An integrated approach using contextual, use-wear, scientific and experimental methods was used to analyze the role of stone troughs of up to 165 l capacity at the Early Neolithic site Göbekli Tepe in the context of other stone containers found there. Around 600 (mostly fragmentary) vessels from the site constitute the largest known assemblage from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Near East. Besides the large limestone troughs, it encompasses middle-sized, coarsely made limestone vessels, finely executed platters and ‘greenstone’ vessels. All lines of evidence taken together indicate the use of limestone troughs for the cooking of cereals.

Bread and porridge at Early Neolithic Göbekli Tepe: A new method to recognize products of cereal processing using quantitative functional analyses on grinding stones

The Early Neolithic site Göbekli Tepe which has delivered the largest corpus of grinding stones known by now in Northern Mesopotamia is used as a case study to test the possibility of wear classification and the application of quantification methods in use-wear caused by the processing of cereals. The research design is based on combined optical and tactile analyses as well as geometric analyses of shape deformation and 3D-modelling of surface roughness on original grinding stones and experimentally used replicas. This approach can be used to differentiate between fine and coarse flour as products of cereal processing as they produce different wear markers. Also, it can be applied to quantify use-lives of handstones. At Göbekli Tepe, handstones with markers for fine flour production, which can be possibly linked to bread-like products, are in the minority while handstones with markers for coarse flour clearly predominate. The social implications of these results have to be discussed with a view towards Göbekli Tepe’s interpretation as a ritual site. We propose fine flour as a special product within feasting, in accordance with previous interpretations of the site.

ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY OF GOSAN-RI-TYPE POTTERY, THE OLDEST MANUFACTURED POTTERY IN KOREA

ABSTRACTGosan-ri-type pottery (GTP) is a unique plant-fiber-tempered pottery from Korea and has only been found in Early Neolithic sites on Jeju Island. In this study, we conducted radiocarbon (14C) dating for one GTP sample and 10 charcoal samples collected from archaeological structures in which GTP was found in 2012. The measurement conditions, the internal quality assurance test, and the reliability test indicate that each 14C date is very reliable. However, the 14C dates of the charcoal samples were more accurate than that of the GTP sample due to contamination from younger humic acids. From the summary of all 14C dates of charcoal samples using the KDE model, we finally conclude that GTP was manufactured and utilized throughout the period 9610–9490 cal BP (7670–7550 BC) with 95.4% confidence level. This age corroborates the inference that GTP is the oldest known Korean Neolithic pottery.

Imprints of paleo-environmental conditions and human activities in mineral magnetic properties of fired clay remains from Neolithic houses

Fire as a global phenomenon plays crucial role in the Earth’s climate feedbacks and forcing. However, human’s influence is becoming increasingly important during the Anthropocene epoch. Burnt Neolithic houses are among the most impressive remains from fire-related ancient human activities. Mineral magnetic properties and firing temperature estimates using magnetic susceptibility method were carried out on a collection of burnt clay remains from house destructions originating from 18 Neolithic sites from Bulgaria. All of the sites/dwellings ended their existence after extensive fire. The general aim of the study was to explore the mineral magnetic properties of fired clay materials against the most important environmental factors. The main magnetic minerals identified in the burnt structures were magnetite, maghemite and hematite, as well as recently reported in several studies ε-Fe2O3. The latter evidences high intensity fire since this specific mineral can be synthesized at temperatures exceeding 900 °C. Magnetic susceptibility and percent frequency dependent magnetic susceptibility at site level were considered in relation to the climatic conditions, as defined in the published anthracological studies involving most of the sites. The major difference in lithology of the outcropping rock formations between North and South Bulgaria may influence variations in magnetic enhancement of the burnt clay across the sites at similar other conditions. Firing temperature estimates vary in wide range – between 580 °C and 1050 °C. Estimated average firing temperatures at site’s level showed higher values in Early Neolithic sites (Tfire average = 815 °C) as compared to Late Neolithic ones (Tfire average = 746 °C and 713 °C). We suggest that possible hypotheses for the trend observed could be: difference in climate regimes across the territory, leading to different “fire weather”; or difference in the vegetation fuel used in house construction; and intentional burning of Early Neolithic houses.