This paper examines the letters of debt and obligation preserved in the Lekhapaddhati, a Sanskrit-Gujarati manual of letter writing from early medieval Western India, precisely in the Gujarat. The time and place of its origin are linked to the dynasties of the Cāulukyas and their successors, the Vāghelās, whose rulers are frequently mentioned in the Lekhapaddhati. These letters, written in ‘mixed language’, offer a rare window into how debt was negotiated, acknowledged, and emotionally experienced in everyday life. Rather than viewing them as administrative or legal correspondence, this study reads them as reflections of a moral economy, where the circulation of money was governed as much by trust, honour, and social reputation. By analyzing two contrasting mortgage correspondences from the Lekhapaddhati, Gṛihaḍḍāṇaka Patra Vidhi Yathā and Gṛihaḍūli Patra Yathā, this paper explores the structural composition of the letters, identities of creditors and debtors, the role of witnesses and intermediaries, and the diverse emotions through which obligation and trust were articulated. Through the comparative analysis of both correspondences, the paper seeks to reconstruct the everyday texture of credit relations and the ethical world within they were embedded.

The aim of the article is to peep into the various modes of transportation used during the early mediaeval period (c. 600–1300 ad ) in Western India (particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat) for the easy movement of both commodities of exchange and people. The early mediaeval period in Western India is remarkable for its dynamic upsurge in trade and commercial activities. Since trade during this period was not merely confined to the inland regions, we see a marked increase in the movement of people involved in the trading business along with commodities of exchange to distant places (foreign lands) by both land and sea routes. Moreover, travelling in those times was not an easy affair, as it involved much hardship, and the threat of robbers and pirates. The present study is primarily based on literary and epigraphical sources of early mediaeval centuries.

Origin legends in early medieval Western Europe. Edited by Lindy Brady and Patrick Wadden. (Reading Medieval Sources, 6.) Pp. xii + 474 incl. 19 colour and black- and-white ills. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2023. €198. 978 90 04 40036 8; 2589 2509 - Volume 76 Issue 2

This article explores the architectural features of the High Castle in Lviv in comparison with European fortifications from different historical periods, spanning from the “motte and bailey” castles of the X–XII centuries to the Gothic strongholds of the XIII–XIV centuries and the Renaissance bastion systems of the XVI century. The study aims to identify both similarities and distinctions between the High Castle and its European counterparts by examining aspects such as the use of natural topography for defense, functional zoning, and material evolution in fortification architecture. A key aspect of this comparison lies in the “motte and bailey” castles, a prevalent fortification type in early medieval Western Europe. These castles typically featured an artificial or natural mound (motte) crowned with a wooden or stone keep, along with an enclosed courtyard (bailey) serving economic and residential functions. The High Castle shares structural similarities with these fortifications due to its elevated location and strategic division into upper and lower courtyards. However, unlike many “motte and bailey” castles, which were predominantly wooden, the High Castle incorporated a combination of wooden and stone structures from the outset, a characteristic more typical of later fortifications such as Carcassonne in France and Windsor Castle in England. The study further examines the impact of Gothic fortifications on the architectural evolution of the High Castle. Gothic castles such as Carcassonne and Hohenzollern prioritized tall stone walls, rounded towers, and complex defensive systems, which allowed for improved visibility and protection. While the High Castle in Lviv incorporated some of these elements, it lacked the double curtain walls and advanced moats typical of fully developed Gothic strongholds. This difference suggests a more localized approach to defensive architecture, integrating Western influences with regional construction traditions.

Origin Legends in Early Medieval Western Europe by Lindy Brady and Patrick Wadden (review)

Reviewed by: The origin legends of early medieval Britain and Ireland by Lindy Brady Donato Sitaro (bio) Lindy Brady, The origin legends of early medieval Britain and Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. ISBN 9781009225618 (hardback), 9781009225670 (ebook). x + 272 pages. $99.00. Origin myths and legends are prominent features of early medieval writings and mentalities. They became a popular genre, an ever-growing corpus of traditions and pseudo-histories, and eventually a late-antique/early medieval 'scholarly preoccupation', as underlined by Brady & Wadden in the foreword to their edited volume Origin legends in early medieval Western Europe (2022: 4). Despite not being the first recorded origines gentium, the Insular origin myths stand out as precious hermeneutic objects for scholars of early medieval culture, as part of a genre 'that has shaped national identity and collective history from the early medieval period to the present day', as we read in the synopsis. The variety of their approach and their richness in contents and traditions make the British, Irish, Pictish, and Anglo-Saxon origin narratives a perfect subject for a dedicated volume. Discussing these apparently divergent narratives in comparative terms was not an easy task, but Brady bravely attempts it in a relatively compact and easily readable book. Divided into five main chapters, the book is prefaced by a 27-page introductory section, eloquently titled 'The anachronism of nationalism', where modern scholarly debate around the contested concepts of ethnicity, post-Roman identities, and early medieval writers' agendas is summarized and discussed. Brady's approach consciously differs from the two major historiographical standpoints on ethnic identities, as it neither gives excessive weight to the influence of Classical ethnography (as Goffart did), [End Page 156] nor does it look too far forward by extending the effects of enduring ethnic identities from the Migration Period deep into the Middle Ages (as in certain readings by Wolfram and Pohl). Brady decides to look 'sideways' (21) to explore the textual and conceptual interrelations between the origin legends of the British Isles without attempting to construct from the texts a straightforward idea of the development of ethnic identities. She looks at the development of origin stories within and among the texts surveyed, more than outside and beyond them. For this reason, the interpretative keywords for Brady's analysis of the sources are 'discourse' and 'development' (3). Her assessment that the concepts enshrined in early medieval origin narratives were communicating and were part of a shared intellectual milieu is repeated throughout the introduction and beyond (1, 4, 16, 21, 63, 227, 229). This assumption finds support in the first chapter through a survey of the textual history of the Insular works containing origin stories: Gildas's De excidio, Bede's Historia ecclesiastica, the ninth-century Historia Brittonum, and the later Irish Lebor Bretnach and Lebor gabála Érenn. While the first two works are referred to in cursory fashion as embryonic nuclei of traditions that would develop later, the latter three pseudo-histories are discussed in depth throughout the book. The Historia Brittonum is given a justified pre-eminence as 'a valuable microcosm of the intellectual connections which form the focus of the study' (16). After the presentation of the sources, the proper narratological analysis begins: chapters 2, 3, and 4 focus on exile, kin-slaying, and intermarriage and incest, respectively. Having established the interrelated nature of the Insular writings in chapter 1, Brady is able to conduct a comparative survey of shared concepts and their development within three concentric levels of investigation corresponding to the three-part structure of these chapters: (i) first she explores the wider conceptual resonance of the motif in literature, usually through comparison with biblical and classical archetypes; (ii) then she outlines the recurrence of historical episodes involving the motif (cases of exiles or kin-slayers in the early medieval Insular context); and finally (iii) she considers the meaning of the motif within the Insular origin narratives. The second part of these themed chapters, the attempt to show 'resonances of these topics in [historical] early insular society' (138), could have been the trickiest. However, Brady addresses the eventual collision between literary motifs and the 'hard facts' drawn from legal and historical records through...

RECENTLY COMPILED DATASETS for hillforts and corn-drying kilns in the west of Britain, when subject to chronological analysis using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE), show a sharp and lasting fall-off in activity in the later 6th and 7th centuries. This paper investigates this through the regional and broader evidence for three major paradigms of change at this time: the Justinianic Plague, climate change, and the growth of Christianity, the last manifested in transfers of land to churches and in an ascetism which affected assembly practices. The resultant analysis provides archaeologically derived insights into social changes of this period, and raises questions about the applicability of dominant narratives framed in other regions.

The paper seeks to look into the role played by the rulers and the merchant class in the emergence of exchange centers (or market centers) in Western India, particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat, during the early medieval period. The paper tries to examine the combined efforts made by both the ruling class and private individuals in the agrarian expansion, which in turn encouraged exchange (trade and commerce) and ultimately paved way for the rise of different exchange centers in different parts of Western India. The focus is on the rising agricultural productivity, commercial transactions, and initiatives by rulers and merchants, which together provided suitable climate for the emergence of exchange centers. Rulers being aware of the revenue-generating potential of commerce themselves encouraged trade by establishing markets. Not only rulers but the merchants too helped in the growth of trade and commerce during the period of study.

The article contains the analysis of the term «the older women» (πρεσβύτιδες, presbyterae) in the Early Christian Greek-speaking and Latin traditions. In Eastern communities the older women have been honored since apostolic times for their pious life and advanced age, which brought them closer to the position of church widows. Perhaps the old women and widows in general represented one order of women who received material assistance from the Church, catechized young women, prepared them for baptism. The name of the older women «presbytides» did not become, unlike the concepts of «deaconesses» and «widows», the designation of women’s institutional ministry although there was a tendency to this, as it was evidenced by the controversial 11th canon of the Laodicean Council. In the Early Church women’s ministry was considered as a whole one, but in the areas it was called differently as the min-istry of the older women, widows and deaconesses. That is, it was outside the established terminology, also because it was not closely connected with the liturgical functions of women. It is not completely clear what women’s ministry in Western communities was, since in cases which we are talking about older women («presbyterae»), early medieval Western authors have already definitively confirmed that this was either the wife of a presbyter, or a woman of a strict lifestyle, in fact a religious who watched over the order and cleanliness in the church, as well as baked wafers for Communion. The evolution of wom-en’s ministry in the Church, primarily in its western part, demonstrated the impossibility of its further institutionalization and convergence with liturgical ministry.

本 文 以 德 干 西 部 巴 達 米 、 艾 荷 落 、 帕 塔 達 卡 爾 的 中 世 紀 早 期 寺 廟 建 築 群 為 研 究 對 象 ， 介 紹 了 相 關 藝 術 家 及 其 藝 術 實 踐 。 筆 者 試 圖 理 解 建 築 師 、 雕 刻 家 、 作 曲 家 、 表 演 者 、 導 師 和 贊 助 人 的 角 色 ， 這 些 角 色 在 藝 術 家 自 己 的 表 達 和 作 品 中 得 到 體 現 ， 這 與 常 規 文 本 所 呈 現 的 方 式 大 不 相 同 。 重 點 是 當 事 者 角 度 ： 藝 術 家 如 何 看 待 自 己 及 其 作 品 ？ 關 於 自 己 的 身 份 、 志 向 、 創 作 環 境 、 工 作 方 法 以 及 藝 術 表 達 動 機 ， 他 們 留 下 了 哪 些 線 索 ？ 他 們 如 何 經 營 彼 此 以 及 與 贊 助 人 之 間 的 關 係 ？ 此 外 ， 本 文 還 探 討 了 德 干 中 世 紀 早 期 視 覺 藝 術 和 表 演 藝 術 之 間 的 關 係 ， 並 將 兩 者 歷 史 相 結 合 。 該 過 程 肯 定 了 以 下 方 法 的 重 要 性 ， 即 研 究 藝 術 家 的 自 我 表 達 ， 有 利 於 對 歷 史 遺 跡 的 解 讀 。

The present article basically seeks to look into the emergence and spread of exchange centres, popularly known as maṇḍapikās and haṭṭas, in western India during the early medieval period (c. 600–1300 ce). Large-scale land grants, introduction of better means of irrigational facilities such as araghaṭṭa and vāpī acted as catalyst for the growth of agrarian economy, leading to the availability of marketable surplus. All this altogether led to dynamic upsurge in trading activities, ultimately providing a favourable ground for the rise of exchange centres in different parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Political initiative by the rulers, rise of temple economy, organisation of fairs and festivals and the spatial context of an exchange centre were enabling factors. Merchants and merchant groups also in their capacity played a crucial role in the growth of exchange centres during this period.

A SOCIAL APPROACH TO MONETISATION shifts the attention from the classic money media — gold and silver — to the dissemination of two social practices: valuing and paying. When these two monetary practices first became widespread in western Scandinavia during the gold rich migration period (in the 5th to 6th centuries ad), they were not introduced in the sphere of trade, but instead were features of traditional or customary payments, such as weregeld (atonements for murder or offences against the person) or marriage dowries. By the Viking Age, in the late 8th to 10th centuries ad, despite flourishing commodity production, precious metals were used as payment in trade solely in towns. Even in towns, this commercial use seems to have been adopted late, and was employed only occasionally. This paper reviews the changing approaches to money and monetisation, and draws attention to the potential for regarding monetisation as the spread of a set of social practices.

Zubin Mistry’s Abortion in the Early Middle Ages, c.500–900 seeks to uncover the cultural significance of abortion in early medieval societies. While evidence about pre-modern attitudes to abortion in early medieval Western Europe is fragmentary, Mistry manages to summon a range of sources, all condemning the practice. In excerpts of canon laws, penitentials, sermons, saints’ lives, and biblical commentaries, he reads deeply into the context that occasioned authoritative statements on abortion. The resulting monograph is the first to comprehensively gather all of the authoritative fragments on abortion in continental Western Europe from the period and to consider their cumulative effects, addressing how they relate to one another to reflect, if not a cohesive discourse on abortion, then at least the “thought-worlds” of their authors. Abortion in the Early Middle Ages firmly establishes that reactions to the practice of abortion were situational, rooted in specific historical circumstances, and unrepresentative of contemporary abstract concerns about fetal “life.”

The author of this paper analyses the sources of the early medieval Western Slavs that point to the existence of the beliefs that connected heads with the essence of the life – the spirit/soul, and considered the head as the most important part of the human body, also possessing a mediatory nature. The head was believed to encompass the most significant aspects of human personality and individual skills. It could also have had supernatural qualities that were manifested through its ability to speak, give advice, warn against danger or foresee the future. This article presents the results of the investigations on the role of the head in Slavic societies and offers new hypotheses.

Abstract Historians of the early Middle Ages (c. 600–c. 1050) have long used material remains and archeological evidence to learn about that era. Over the last four decades, material culture studies have become a prominent area of historical research, particularly for cultural historians. Recent early medieval studies have followed this trend. In addition, religious and economic studies of the so‐called “Dark Ages” have drawn from material sources. Object‐driven social history has been less popular, but recent work, especially on Francia and Anglo‐Saxon England, demonstrates that such projects offer new findings on a period whose texts rarely address social relations and everyday life directly. Material culture therefore offers rich research possibilities for early medieval social history.

Using the seventh-century Vita of Gertrude of Nivelles, this paper examines the story of Gertrude's tonsure in connection with Frankish attitudes about hair-cutting, family, gender and authority. The story of Gertrude's tonsure is unique in the hagiography of early medieval Western female saints. Gertrude's tonsure was inspired by many examples of renunciation and hair-cutting including the Bible, Patristic writing, Germanic practices and Frankish myths. However, if Gertrude's tonsure is considered in the light of distinctly Frankish beliefs about the relationship of hair, hair-cutting, and family lineage and inheritance, Gertrude's mother Itta appears to have used the male symbol of monastic tonsure as a method of protecting Gertrude's inheritance for the foundation of the monastery of Nivelles. As Gertrude's tonsure saved the girl from forced marriage, Itta's actions in tonsuring her daughter paradoxically re-emphasised the meaning of the forced tonsure of Frankish royal men and the voluntary tonsure of monks within Frankish society.

This paper provides an overview of the political organisation, the system of land use and exploitation in the Western Slavic territories in the early and high Middle Ages. Nowhere in this area was the classical landed estate model of the Frankish empire taken over. Rather, direct power relations between people played a bigger role. They could appear in the form of very small units, characterised by many stronghold-based chieftains in the tribal period, but also in the form of big kingdoms – which derived from complex tribal chiefdom organisations. The basic pattern was always the same : the leader, who was legitimized by family and/ or elected, owned the whole of the land and exerted power over the people. He based his power on a strong military retinue and strongholds. Amongst the main sources of revenue were loot and tributes : the people in the dominion were forced to deliver certain goods and services.

Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe, 300–900: The Sword, the Plough and the Book – By Matthew Innes

Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe, 300-900: The Sword, the Plough, and the Book

HistoryVolume 93, Issue 311 p. 412-413 Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe, 300–900: The Sword, the Plough and the Book By Matthew Innes NICK HIGHAM, NICK HIGHAM University of ManchesterSearch for more papers by this author NICK HIGHAM, NICK HIGHAM University of ManchesterSearch for more papers by this author First published: 28 June 2008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-229X.2008.431_17.xRead the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article. Volume93, Issue311July 2008Pages 412-413 RelatedInformation