Early Eocene Greenhouse Research Articles

The temperature-precipitation duel and tropical greening during the Early Eocene Greenhouse episode

Under rising anthropogenic CO2, the future of the tropical climate states and the response of the biosphere, specifically the fate of the tropical rainforest (TRF), is uncertain. Therefore, deep-time climate proxy records and model simulations are being extensively utilized to understand the possible response of the TRF community during extreme climate states. However, comprehensive climate-TRF proxy data from the tropical/equatorial region for the paleo-global warming episodes, e.g., Late Paleocene – Early Eocene interval (∼56 to 51 Ma, encompassing transient hyperthermal events like Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum [PETM], Eocene Thermal Maximum2 [ETM2]/H1/ Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin [ELMO], H2, I1, and I2), are very limited and create difficulties in the validation of simulated results. Here we present long-term land surface temperature and precipitation (δ2H and δ18O of pedogenic clay mineral-derived) and TRF diversity (palynology) data from a paleo-equatorial region, spanning the ∼56 to 51 Ma interval. Present data suggest that the hydrological response to global warming was not temporally uniform in the paleo-equatorial land. While a significantly increased rainfall buffered the terrestrial temperature during the PETM, an insignificant increase in precipitation and negligible temperature lowering can be observed during the ETM2 hyperthermal event. However, the climate system's response during the other Early Eocene hyperthermals, i.e., H2, I1, and I2, was very similar to the PETM. Despite these small aberrations, the long-term average equatorial land surface temperature (27 ± 4 °C) during the Early Eocene greenhouse episode remained very similar to the modern equatorial temperature (28–30 °C). Rainfall proxy and plant diversity data suggest that the precipitation aided TRFs' resilience and proliferation, possibly through temperature buffering, during this paleo-greenhouse episode.

Sensitivity of ocean circulation to warming during the Early Eocene greenhouse

Multiple abrupt warming events ("hyperthermals") punctuated the Early Eocene and were associated with deep-sea temperature increases of 2 to 4 °C, seafloor carbonate dissolution, and negative carbon isotope (δ13C) excursions. Whether hyperthermals were associated with changes in the global ocean overturning circulation is important for understanding their driving mechanisms and feedbacks and for gaining insight into the circulation's sensitivity to climatic warming. Here, we present high-resolution benthic foraminiferal stable isotope records (δ13C and δ18O) throughout the Early Eocene Climate Optimum (~53.26 to 49.14 Ma) from the deep equatorial and North Atlantic. Combined with existing records from the South Atlantic and Pacific, these indicate consistently amplified δ13C excursion sizes during hyperthermals in the deep equatorial Atlantic. We compare these observations with results from an intermediate complexity Earth system model to demonstrate that this spatial pattern of δ13C excursion size is a predictable consequence of global warming-induced changes in ocean overturning circulation. In our model, transient warming drives the weakening of Southern Ocean-sourced overturning circulation, strengthens Atlantic meridional water mass aging gradients, and amplifies the magnitude of negative δ13C excursions in the equatorial to North Atlantic. Based on model-data consistency, we conclude that Eocene hyperthermals coincided with repeated weakening of the global overturning circulation. Not accounting for ocean circulation impacts on δ13C excursions will lead to incorrect estimates of the magnitude of carbon release driving hyperthermals. Our finding of weakening overturning in response to past transient climatic warming is consistent with predictions of declining Atlantic Ocean overturning strength in our warm future.

Eocene (50–55 Ma) greenhouse climate recorded in nonmarine rocks of San Diego, CA, USA

Nonmarine rocks in sea cliffs of southern California store a detailed record of weathering under tropical conditions millions of years ago, where today the climate is much drier and cooler. This work examines early Eocene (~ 50–55 million-year-old) deeply weathered paleosols (ancient, buried soils) exposed in marine terraces of northern San Diego County, California, and uses their geochemistry and mineralogy to reconstruct climate and weathering intensity during early Eocene greenhouse climates. These Eocene warm spikes have been modeled as prequels for ongoing anthropogenic global warming driven by a spike in atmospheric CO2. Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM, ~ 55 Ma) kaolinitic paleosols developed in volcaniclastic conglomerates are evidence of intense weathering (CIA > 98) under warm and wet conditions (mean annual temperature [MAT] of ~ 17 °C ± 4.4 °C and mean annual precipitation [MAP] of ~ 1500 ± 299 mm). Geologically younger Early Eocene climatic optimum (EECO, 50 Ma) high shrink-swell (Vertisol) paleosols developed in coarse sandstones are also intensely weathered (CIA > 80) with MAT estimates of ~ 20 °C ± 4.4 °C but have lower estimated MAP (~ 1100 ± 299 mm), suggesting a less humid climate for the EECO greenhouse spike than for the earlier PETM greenhouse spike.

High-resolution X-ray fluorescence-based provenance mapping of Eocene fluvial distributary fans that fed ancient Gosiute Lake, Wyoming, USA

The Green River Formation of Wyoming, USA, is host to the world’s largest known lacustrine sodium carbonate deposits, which accumulated in a closed basin during the early Eocene greenhouse. Alkaline brines are hypothesized to have been delivered to ancient Gosiute Lake by the Aspen paleoriver that flowed from the Colorado Mineral Belt. To precisely trace fluvial provenance in the resulting deposits, we conducted X-ray fluorescence analyses and petrographic studies across a suite of well-dated sandstone marker beds of the Wilkins Peak Member of the Green River Formation. Principal component analysis reveals strong correlation among elemental abundances, grain composition, and sedimentary lithofacies. To isolate a detrital signal, elements least affected by authigenic minerals, weathering, and other processes were included in a principal component analysis, the results of which are consistent with petrographic sandstone modes and detrital zircon chronofacies of the basin. Sandstone marker beds formed during eccentricity-paced lacustrine lowstands and record the migration of fluvial distributary channel networks from multiple catchments around a migrating depocenter, including two major paleorivers. The depositional topography of these convergent fluvial fans would have inversely defined bathymetric lows during subsequent phases of lacustrine inundation, locations where trona could accumulate below a thermocline. Provenance mapping verifies fluvial connectivity to the Aspen paleoriver and to sources of alkalinity in the Colorado Mineral Belt across Wilkins Peak Member deposition, and shows that the greatest volumes of sediment were delivered from the Aspen paleoriver during deposition of marker beds A, B, D, and I, each of which were deposited coincident with prominent “hyperthermal” isotopic excursions documented in oceanic cores.

Climate system asymmetries drive eccentricity pacing of hydroclimate during the early Eocene greenhouse.

The early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) represents the peak of Earth's last sustained greenhouse climate interval. To investigate hydroclimate variability in western North America during the EECO, we developed an orbitally resolved leaf wax δ2H record from one of the most well-dated terrestrial paleoclimate archives, the Green River Formation. Our δ2Hwax results show ∼60‰ variation and evidence for eccentricity and precession forcing. iCESM simulations indicate that changes in the Earth's orbit drive large seasonal variations in precipitation and δ2H of precipitation at our study site, primarily during the summer season. Our findings suggest that the astronomical response in δ2Hwax is attributable to an asymmetrical climate response to the seasonal cycle, a "clipping" of precession forcing, and asymmetric carbon cycle dynamics, which further enhance the influence of eccentricity modulation on the hydrological cycle during the EECO. More broadly, our study provides an explanation for how and why eccentricity emerges as a dominant frequency in climate records from ice-free greenhouse worlds.

A study on benthic molluscs and stable isotopes from Kutch, western India reveals early Eocene hyperthermals and pronounced transgression during ETM2 and H2 events

The early Eocene greenhouse Earth experienced several transient global warming events, indicated by sharp negative excursions in the stable isotope ratios of carbon and oxygen. A huge amount of CO2, enriched with 12C, was released in the ocean–atmosphere system leading to warming. The Paleocene–Eocene boundary is demarcated by the most significant and well-known hyperthermal event, Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum (PETM). The PETM is documented to be accompanied by a transgression. The later hyperthermals are relatively less studied. Information on the hyperthermals from the palaeo-tropical basins are relatively few. Here, we present a high-resolution litho-, bio- and isotope–stratigraphic analysis of the early Eocene succession from the Kutch Basin, western India. Stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen were analysed from sediments (δ13Corg) and mollusc shells (δ13Ccarb and δ18Ocarb). The succession, prevailingly with lignite, along with carbonaceous black shale and plenty of fossil plant remains, is primarily a product of terrestrial environment. A pronounced marine transgression, characterised by marine mollusc bearing glauconitic shale in the middle of the succession, indicates a coastal transitional setting between the ocean and land. The δ13C curve of organic carbon reveals five negative excursions, which are identified as the PETM, Eocene thermal maximum 2 (ETM2)/H1, H2, I1 and I2 in ascending order. The hyperthermal pair of ETM2–H2 corresponds with the marine interval. δ13Ccarb and δ18Ocarb from the middle part of the succession reveal concomitant negative excursions. The association between these hyperthermals and transgression appears to be regionally and globally valid, which strongly suggests a causal link between them.

Simulation of Arctic sea ice within the DeepMIP Eocene ensemble: Thresholds, seasonality and factors controlling sea ice development

The early Eocene greenhouse climate maintained by high atmospheric CO2 concentrations serves as a testbed for future climate changes dominated by increasing CO2 forcing. In particular, the early Eocene Arctic region is important in the context of future CO2 driven climate warming in the northern polar region and associated shrinking Arctic sea ice. Here, we present early Eocene Arctic sea ice simulations carried out by six coupled climate models within the framework of the Deep-Time Model Intercomparison Project (DeepMIP). We find differences in sea ice responses to CO2 changes across the ensemble and compare the results with available proxy-based sea ice reconstructions from the Arctic Ocean. Most of the models simulate seasonal sea ice presence at high CO2 levels (≥ 840 ppmv = 3× pre-industrial (PI) level of 280 ppmv). However, the threshold when sea ice permanently disappears from the ocean varies considerably between the models (from <840 ppmv to >1680 ppmv). Based on a one-dimensional energy balance model analysis we find that the greenhouse effect likely caused by increased atmospheric water vapor concentration plays an important role in the inter-model spread in Arctic winter surface temperature changes in response to a CO2 rise from 1× to 3× the PI level. Furthermore, differences in simulated surface salinity in the Arctic Ocean play an important role in the control of local sea ice formation. These differences result from different implementations of river run-off between the models, but also from differences in the exchange of waters between a brackish Arctic and a more saline North Atlantic Ocean that are controlled by the width of the gateway between both basins. As there is no geological evidence for Arctic sea ice in the early Eocene, its presence in most of the simulations with 3× PI CO2 level indicates either a higher CO2 level and/or an overly weak polar sensitivity in these models.

North Atlantic marine biogenic silica accumulation through the early to middle Paleogene: implications for ocean circulation and silicate weathering feedback

Abstract. The Paleogene history of biogenic opal accumulation in the North Atlantic provides insight into both the evolution of deepwater circulation in the Atlantic basin and weathering responses to major climate shifts. However, existing records are compromised by low temporal resolution and/or stratigraphic discontinuities. In order to address this problem, we present a multi-site, high-resolution record of biogenic silica (bioSiO2) accumulation from Blake Nose (ODP Leg 171B, western North Atlantic) spanning the early Paleocene to late Eocene time interval (∼65–34 Ma). This record represents the longest single-locality history of marine bioSiO2 burial compiled to date and offers a unique perspective into changes in bioSiO2 fluxes through the early to middle Paleogene extreme greenhouse interval and the subsequent period of long-term cooling. Blake Nose bioSiO2 fluxes display prominent fluctuations that we attribute to variations in sub-thermocline nutrient supply via cyclonic eddies associated with the Gulf Stream. Following elevated and pulsed bioSiO2 accumulation through the Paleocene to early Eocene greenhouse interval, a prolonged interval of markedly elevated bioSiO2 flux in the middle Eocene between ∼46 and 42 Ma is proposed to reflect nutrient enrichment at Blake Nose due to invigorated overturning circulation following an early onset of Northern Component Water export from the Norwegian–Greenland Sea at ∼49 Ma. Reduced bioSiO2 flux in the North Atlantic, in combination with increased bioSiO2 flux documented in existing records from the equatorial Pacific between ∼42 and 38 Ma, is interpreted to indicate diminished nutrient supply and reduced biosiliceous productivity at Blake Nose in response to weakening of the overturning circulation. Subsequently, in the late Eocene, a deepwater circulation regime favoring limited bioSiO2 burial in the Atlantic and enhanced bioSiO2 burial in the Pacific was established after ∼38 Ma, likely in conjunction with re-invigoration of deepwater export from the North Atlantic. We also observe that Blake Nose bioSiO2 fluxes through the middle Eocene cooling interval (∼48 to 34 Ma) are similar to or higher than background fluxes throughout the late Paleocene–early Eocene interval (∼65 to 48 Ma) of intense greenhouse warmth. This observation is consistent with a temporally variable rather than constant silicate weathering feedback strength model for the Paleogene, which would instead predict that marine bioSiO2 burial should peak during periods of extreme warming.

Isotopic constraints on ocean redox at the end of the Eocene

A multi-million-year decrease in global temperatures during the Eocene was accompanied by large reorganisations to ocean circulation, ocean chemistry and biological productivity. These changes culminated in the rapid growth of grounded ice on Antarctica during the Eocene–Oligocene climate transition (EOT), ∼34 million years ago. However, while it is likely that environmental perturbations of this magnitude altered the oceanic oxygen inventory, the sign and magnitude of the response is poorly constrained. We show that euxinic, hydrographically restricted conditions developed in the Austrian Molasse Basin during the EOT. The isotopic compositions of molybdenum and uranium captured by sediments accumulating in the Molasse Basin at this time reveal that the global extent of sulfidic conditions during the EOT was not appreciably different to that of the Early Eocene greenhouse world. Our results suggest that the early Cenozoic oceans were buffered against extreme long-term changes in oxygenation.

Cold spells in the Nordic Seas during the early Eocene Greenhouse

The early Eocene (c. 56 - 48 million years ago) experienced some of the highest global temperatures in Earth’s history since the Mesozoic, with no polar ice. Reports of contradictory ice-rafted erratics and cold water glendonites in the higher latitudes have been largely dismissed due to ambiguity of the significance of these purported cold-climate indicators. Here we apply clumped isotope paleothermometry to a traditionally qualitative abiotic proxy, glendonite calcite, to generate quantitative temperature estimates for northern mid-latitude bottom waters. Our data show that the glendonites of the Danish Basin formed in waters below 5 °C, at water depths of <300 m. Such near-freezing temperatures have not previously been reconstructed from proxy data for anywhere on the early Eocene Earth, and these data therefore suggest that regionalised cool episodes punctuated the background warmth of the early Eocene, likely linked to eruptive phases of the North Atlantic Igneous Province.

Climate impact on fluvial-lake system evolution, Eocene Green River Formation, Uinta Basin, Utah, USA

AbstractIn light of a modern understanding of early Eocene greenhouse climate fluctuations and new highly seasonal fluvial system faces models, the role of climate in the evolution of one classically-cited continental, terminal lake system is re-examined. Detailed stratigraphic description and elemental abundance data from fifteen cores and seven outcrop regions of the Green River Formation were used to construct a ∼150 km cross section across the Uinta Basin, Utah, USA. Lake Uinta in the Uinta Basin is divided into five lake phases: (1) post-Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum, (2) peak Eocene hyperthermal, (3) waning hyperthermal, Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO), (4) post-hyperthermal, and (5) post-EECO regimes, based primarily on climatically driven changes in fluvial style in combination with sedimentary indicators of lacustrine carbonate deposition, organic matter preservation, salinity, and lake depth. Basinwide siliciclastic dominated intervals were deposited by highly seasonal fluvial systems and record negative organic carbon isotope excursions associated with early Eocene abrupt, transient global warming (hyperthermal) events. Carbonate dominated or organic rich intervals record stable, less seasonal climate periods between hyperthermals, with lower siliciclastic sediment supply allowing the development of carbonate and organic matter preservation. The stratigraphic progression from alternating organic rich and lean zones to the overlying organic rich Mahogany and R8 zones represents the global transition out of the pulsed early Eocene hyperthermal climate regime to a time of sediment starvation and lake stratification, sequestering sedimentary organic carbon. This study provides a novel approach to terrestrial paleoclimate reconstruction that relies largely on unique sedimentary indicators and secondarily on isotopic proxy records within the context of a large basin-wide sedimentologic and stratigraphic data set, thus setting the stage for future detailed geochemical terrestrial paleoclimate proxy development.

Early Eocene deep-sea benthic foraminiferal faunas: Recovery from the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum extinction in a greenhouse world.

The early Eocene greenhouse world was marked by multiple transient hyperthermal events. The most extreme was the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM, ~56 Ma), linked to the extinction of the globally recognised deep-sea benthic foraminiferal Velasco fauna, which led to the development of early Eocene assemblages. This turnover has been studied at high resolution, but faunal development into the later early Eocene is poorly documented. There is no widely accepted early Eocene equivalent of the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Velasco fauna, mainly due to the use of different taxonomic concepts. We compiled Ypresian benthic foraminiferal data from 17 middle bathyal-lower abyssal ocean drilling sites in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, in order to characterise early Eocene deep-sea faunas by comparing assemblages across space, paleodepth and time. Nuttallides truempyi, Oridorsalis umbonatus, Bulimina trinitatensis, the Bulimina simplex group, the Anomalinoides spissiformis group, pleurostomellids, uniserial lagenids, stilostomellids and lenticulinids were ubiquitous during the early Eocene (lower-middle Ypresian). Aragonia aragonensis, the Globocassidulina subglobosa group, the Cibicidoides eocaenus group and polymorphinids became ubiquitous during the middle Ypresian. The most abundant early Ypresian taxa were tolerant to stressed or disturbed environments, either by opportunistic behavior (Quadrimorphina profunda, Tappanina selmensis, Siphogenerinoides brevispinosa) and/or the ability to calcify in carbonate-corrosive waters (N. truempyi). Nuttallides truempyi, T. selmensis and other buliminids (Bolivinoides cf. decoratus group, Bulimina virginiana) were markedly abundant during the middle Ypresian. Contrary to the long-lived, highly diverse and equitable Velasco fauna, common and abundant taxa reflect highly perturbed assemblages through the earliest Ypresian, with lower diversity and equitability following the PETM extinction. In contrast, the middle Ypresian assemblages may indicate a recovering fauna, though to some extent persistently disturbed by the lower-amplitude Eocene hyperthermals (e.g., Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 and 3). We propose the name ‘Walvis Ridge fauna’ for future reference to these Ypresian deep-sea benthic foraminiferal assemblages.

The demise of the early Eocene greenhouse – Decoupled deep and surface water cooling in the eastern North Atlantic

Early Paleogene greenhouse climate culminated during the early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO, 50 to 53Ma). This episode of global warmth is subsequently followed by an almost 20 million year-long cooling trend leading to the Eocene-Oligocene glaciation of Antarctica. Here we present the first detailed planktic and benthic foraminiferal isotope single site record (δ13C, δ18O) of late Paleocene to middle Eocene age from the North Atlantic (Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 401, Bay of Biscay). Good core recovery in combination with well preserved foraminifera makes this site suitable for correlations and comparison with previously published long-term records from the Pacific Ocean (e.g. Allison Guyot, Shatsky Rise), the Southern Ocean (Maud Rise) and the equatorial Atlantic (Demerara Rise). Whereas our North Atlantic benthic foraminiferal δ18O and δ13C data agree with the global trend showing the long-term shift toward heavier δ18O values, we only observe minor surface water δ18O changes during the middle Eocene (if at all) in planktic foraminiferal data. Apparently, the surface North Atlantic did not cool substantially during the middle Eocene. Thus, the North Atlantic appears to have had a different surface ocean cooling history during the middle Eocene than the southern hemisphere, whereas cooler deep-water masses were comparatively well mixed. Our results are in agreement with previously published findings from Tanzania, which also support the idea of a muted post-EECO surface-water cooling outside the southern high-latitudes.

Changing atmospheric CO2 concentration was the primary driver of early Cenozoic climate.

The Early Eocene Climate Optimum (EECO, which occurred about 51 to 53 million years ago), was the warmest interval of the past 65 million years, with mean annual surface air temperature over ten degrees Celsius warmer than during the pre-industrial period. Subsequent global cooling in the middle and late Eocene epoch, especially at high latitudes, eventually led to continental ice sheet development in Antarctica in the early Oligocene epoch (about 33.6 million years ago). However, existing estimates place atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels during the Eocene at 500-3,000 parts per million, and in the absence of tighter constraints carbon-climate interactions over this interval remain uncertain. Here we use recent analytical and methodological developments to generate a new high-fidelity record of CO2 concentrations using the boron isotope (δ(11)B) composition of well preserved planktonic foraminifera from the Tanzania Drilling Project, revising previous estimates. Although species-level uncertainties make absolute values difficult to constrain, CO2 concentrations during the EECO were around 1,400 parts per million. The relative decline in CO2 concentration through the Eocene is more robustly constrained at about fifty per cent, with a further decline into the Oligocene. Provided the latitudinal dependency of sea surface temperature change for a given climate forcing in the Eocene was similar to that of the late Quaternary period, this CO2 decline was sufficient to drive the well documented high- and low-latitude cooling that occurred through the Eocene. Once the change in global temperature between the pre-industrial period and the Eocene caused by the action of all known slow feedbacks (apart from those associated with the carbon cycle) is removed, both the EECO and the late Eocene exhibit an equilibrium climate sensitivity relative to the pre-industrial period of 2.1 to 4.6 degrees Celsius per CO2 doubling (66 per cent confidence), which is similar to the canonical range (1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius), indicating that a large fraction of the warmth of the early Eocene greenhouse was driven by increased CO2 concentrations, and that climate sensitivity was relatively constant throughout this period.

The palaeobiology of high latitude birds from the early Eocene greenhouse of Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada.

Fossils attributable to the extinct waterfowl clade Presbyornithidae and the large flightless Gastornithidae from the early Eocene (~52–53 Ma) of Ellesmere Island, in northernmost Canada are the oldest Cenozoic avian fossils from the Arctic. Except for its slightly larger size, the Arctic presbyornithid humerus is not distinguishable from fossils of Presbyornis pervetus from the western United States, and the Gastornis phalanx is within the known size range of mid-latitude individuals. The occurrence of Presbyornis above the Arctic Circle in the Eocene could be the result of annual migration like that of its living duck and geese relatives, or it may have been a year-round resident similar to some Eocene mammals on Ellesmere and some extant species of sea ducks. Gastornis, along with some of the mammalian and reptilian members of the Eocene Arctic fauna, likely over-wintered in the Arctic. Despite the milder (above freezing) Eocene climate on Ellesmere Island, prolonged periods of darkness occurred during the winter. Presence of these extinct birds at both mid and high latitudes on the northern continents provides evidence that future increases in climatic warming (closer to Eocene levels) could lead to the establishment of new migratory or resident populations within the Arctic Circle.

Deep-sea benthic foraminiferal turnover during the early–middle Eocene transition at Walvis Ridge (SE Atlantic)

The early–middle Eocene transition (EMET, ~51–47Ma) was a pivotal time in Cenozoic global climate development, encompassing the end of the Early Eocene Climate Optimum (EECO) and the start of high-latitude cooling, culminating in the early Oligocene Glacial Maximum (34–33Ma). We studied benthic foraminiferal assemblages and stable isotopes at upper abyssal Site 1263 (paleodepth ~1800m) and lower abyssal Site 1267 (paleodepth ~3500m) on Walvis Ridge (SE Atlantic) across the EMET. Benthic δ18O values at both sites rose from ~49.7Ma on, becoming slightly higher at the shallower site than at the deeper site from ~44Ma on. Benthic δ13C values show a broad maximum at ~49–48Ma. Benthic foraminiferal assemblages at both sites are dominated by calcareous taxa, particularly Nuttallides truempyi, indicative of oligotrophic conditions. Large species of Bulimina, indicative of more food-rich conditions, were less rare at the shallower site, where benthic foraminiferal accumulation rates were generally higher. Specimens intermediate in morphology between N. truempyi (a cosmopolitan warm-water species which died out in the latest Eocene) and its extant, also cosmopolitan, cold-water descendant Nuttallides umbonifera (indicative of corrosive bottom waters), are present, as well as various Epistominella species, indicative of seasonal delivery of phytodetritus to the sea floor, and globally more common after the Eocene–Oligocene transition. These assemblages indicate that deep water environments started a gradual evolution from conditions typical for the warm early Eocene greenhouse to those typical for icehouse conditions by the end of the early Eocene. Characteristic early Eocene species such as Aragonia aragonensis and Quadrimorphina profunda persisted at least until 48Ma (the end of the studied interval) at the deeper site, whereas at the shallower site, they had their last appearances at ~49.7Ma, the time of increase in δ18O values, i.e., high latitude and deep-water cooling. The benthic foraminiferal transition towards assemblages typical for a glaciated world thus started close to the end of the early Eocene in the SE Atlantic, with the middle Eocene already representing a transitional world. The faunal changes in the SE Atlantic began earlier at upper abyssal than at lower abyssal depths. This suggests that a more stratified ocean started to develop in the SE Atlantic at the end of the EECO, possibly due to changes in source regions of intermediate water masses due to polar cooling and/or circulation changes around the Antarctic continent.

Seawater neodymium isotope record of Antarctic climate instability during the termination of the Early Eocene Greenhouse

Seawater neodymium isotope record of Antarctic climate instability during the termination of the Early Eocene Greenhouse

Paleoenvironment and paleoecology of a Late Paleocene high-latitude terrestrial succession, Arkose Ridge Formation at Box Canyon, southern Talkeetna Mountains, Alaska

Paleogene sedimentary rocks of the Arkose Ridge Formation (Talkeetna Mountains, Alaska) preserve a record of a fluvial–lacustrine depositional environment and its forested ecosystem in an active basin among the convergent margin tectonic processes that shaped southern Alaska. An ~800m measured succession at Box Canyon indicates braid-plain deposition with predominantly gravelly deposits low in the exposure to sandy and muddy facies associations below an overlying lava flow sequence. U–Pb geochronology on zircons from a tuff and a sandstone within the measured section, as well as an Ar/Ar date from the overlying lava constrain the age of the sedimentary succession to between ~59Ma and 48Ma. Fossil plant remains occur throughout the Arkose Ridge Formation as poorly-preserved coalified woody debris and fragmentary leaf impressions. At Box Canyon, however, a thin lacustrine depositional lens of rhythmically laminated mudrocks yielded fish fossils and a well-preserved floral assemblage including foliage and reproductive organs representing conifers, sphenopsids, monocots, and dicots. Leaf physiognomic methods to estimate paleoclimate were applied to the dicot leaf collection and indicate warm temperate paleotemperatures (~11–15±~4°C MAT) and elevated paleoprecipitation (~120cm/yr MAP) estimates as compared to modern conditions; results that are parallel with previously published estimates from the partly coeval Chickaloon Formation deposited in more distal depositional environments in the same basin. The low abundance of leaf herbivory in the Box Canyon dicot assemblage (~9% of leaves damaged) is also similar to the results from assemblages in the meander-plain depositional systems of the Chickaloon. This new suite of data informs models of the tectonostratigraphic evolution of southern Alaska and the developing understanding of terrestrial paleoecology and paleoclimate at high latitudes during the Late Paleocene–Early Eocene greenhouse climate phase.

Expansion of the rare trochid Calliovarica (Mollusca: Gastropoda) into eastern Zealandian waters during the late Paleocene–early Eocene thermal event

STILWELL, J.D., 2014. Expansion of the rare trochid Calliovarica (Mollusca: Gastropoda) into eastern Zealandian waters during the late Paleocene–early Eocene thermal event. Alcheringa 38. ISSN 0311–5518.The late Paleocene–early Eocene greenhouse interval saw equator–pole sea-surface temperature gradients weaken and tropical and subtropical molluscs reach far southern waters, including eastern Zealandia, during this major thermal maximum. One of the rarest gastropods from this interval, the early Eocene chilodontine trochid gastropod Calliovarica H. Vokes, was previously recorded only from two species in California to Washington State, western North America. Described herein is a new occurrence, C. rangiaotea n. sp., from the Red Bluff Tuff of Chatham and Pitt islands, southwest Pacific, where it is rare, and recorded from volcanogenic sediments associated with Surtseyan-style volcanism. All three recorded species are characterized by a browsing/grazing, epifaunal lifestyle on volcanic, hard substrates.Jeffrey D. Stilwell [Jeffrey.Stilwell@sci.monash.edu.au], School of Geosciences, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia, and Australian Museum, 6 College Street, Sydney NSW 2000, Australia. Received 9.8.2013, revised 14.10.2013, accepted 25.10.2013.

Stable carbon isotopes of C3 plant resins and ambers record changes in atmospheric oxygen since the Triassic

Estimating the partial pressure of atmospheric oxygen (pO2) in the geological past has been challenging because of the lack of reliable proxies. Here we develop a technique to estimate paleo-pO2 using the stable carbon isotope composition (δ13C) of plant resins—including amber, copal, and resinite—from a wide range of localities and ages (Triassic to modern). Plant resins are particularly suitable as proxies because their highly cross-linked terpenoid structures allow the preservation of pristine δ13C signatures over geological timescales. The distribution of δ13C values of modern resins (n=126) indicates that (a) resin-producing plant families generally have a similar fractionation behavior during resin biosynthesis, and (b) the fractionation observed in resins is similar to that of bulk plant matter. Resins exhibit a natural variability in δ13C of around 8‰ (δ13C range: −31‰ to −23‰, mean: −27‰), which is caused by local environmental and ecological factors (e.g., water availability, water composition, light exposure, temperature, nutrient availability). To minimize the effects of local conditions and to determine long-term changes in the δ13C of resins, we used mean δ13C values (δ13Cmeanresin) for each geological resin deposit. Fossil resins (n=412) are generally enriched in 13C compared to their modern counterparts, with shifts in δ13Cmeanresin of up to 6‰. These isotopic shifts follow distinctive trends through time, which are unrelated to post-depositional processes including polymerization and diagenesis. The most enriched fossil resin samples, with a δ13Cmeanresin between −22‰ and −21‰, formed during the Triassic, the mid-Cretaceous, and the early Eocene. Experimental evidence and theoretical considerations suggest that neither change in pCO2 nor in the δ13C of atmospheric CO2 can account for the observed shifts in δ13Cmeanresin. The fractionation of 13C in resin-producing plants (Δ13C), instead, is primarily influenced by atmospheric pO2, with more fractionation occurring at higher pO2. The enriched δ13Cmeanresin values suggest that atmospheric pO2 during most of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic was considerably lower (pO2=10–20%) than today (pO2=21%). In addition, a correlation between the δ13Cmeanresin and the marine δ18O record implies that pO2, pCO2, and global temperatures were inversely linked, which suggests that intervals of low pO2 were generally accompanied by high pCO2 and elevated global temperatures. Intervals with the lowest inferred pO2, including the mid-Cretaceous and the early Eocene, were preceded by large-scale volcanism during the emplacement of large igneous provinces (LIPs). This suggests that the influx of mantle-derived volcanic CO2 triggered an initial phase of warming, which led to an increase in oxidative weathering, thereby further increasing greenhouse forcing. This process resulted in the rapid decline of atmospheric pO2 during the mid-Cretaceous and the early Eocene greenhouse periods. After the cessation in LIP volcanism and the decrease in oxidative weathering rates, atmospheric pO2 levels continuously increased over tens of millions of years, whereas CO2 levels and temperatures continuously declined. These findings suggest that atmospheric pO2 had a considerable impact on the evolution of the climate on Earth, and that the δ13C of fossil resins can be used as a novel tool to assess the changes of atmospheric compositions since the emergence of resin-producing plants in the Paleozoic.