Early Eighth Research Articles

Learning to See the Goddess Once Again: Male and Female in Balance at the Kailasanath Temple in Kancipuram

All scholarship on the famous Kailāsanāth temple, a stone complex built by a king of the Pallava dynasty during the early eighth century at his capital city in southeastern India, assumes that it was dedicated to Śiva alone. Surveys of Indic art presume that most Hindu temples—and all of those built of stone, in cities, by royal patrons—were built for male deites. I propose that the Kailāsanāth is instead two conjoined temples of equal significance, one to Śiva and one to goddesses. The architectural and sculptural signs of goddess worship at the Kailāsanāth are, furthermore, present at other temples, temples central to the art historical canon, temples we thought we knew well when we knew them simply as dedications to male deities. The Kailāsanāth temple teaches us to recognize the substantial presence of goddesses in Indic temple architecture, and to begin understanding cultural assumptions that have prevented us from seeing this before.

La table de Bède

Twenty-seven : that is the number of scenes in which the Venerable Bede, in his historical and hagiographical writings, mentions the activity of eating or drinking together.These few cases enable us to bring out several models of what a meal is for Bede. Those works contain several kinds of meals/feasts and each type varies between « normal » and « abnormal » behaviours. Each kind of meal comes within a framework governed by two focuses : an « ideal » focus, that is an anticipation of the heavenly city ; and a « social » focus, drawn from Bede’s observation of his own society. Transgressions, when characters move away from the models, are a major place for the study of Bede’s ideas about food and feasting. Whether they be saints or sinners, some characters break the unwritten « social » rules of the feast, whereas others contravene its heavenly « ideal » rules, providing us with information about Bede’s own models and those that were at work in early eighth- century Northumbria.

The Friars Go to War: Mendicant Military Chaplains, 1216-c. 1300

The mendicant orders, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans, have received enormous scholarly attention, virtually from their inception in 1210 and 1216, respectively, regarding a wide range of topics, but particularly their activities as preachers, teachers, advisors, and missionaries.1 Somewhat less attention has been paid to the role of the mendicants as confessors, particularly confessors to non-aristocratic or royal lay people.2 This lacuna in scholarship regarding the mendicant orders is particularly evident in the consideration of Franciscan and Dominican friars as military chaplains. This study sheds light on an important yet insufficiently appreciated aspect of mendicant pastoral activity during the first century of the Franciscan and Dominican orders.3 Background Military pastoral care, that is, the religious support provided to soldiers by priests, played an exceptionally important role in the conduct of warfare in both Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, particularly for the maintenance of morale and discipline.4 In the late Roman Empire and its western successor states, pastoral duties largely fell to bishops and a small cadre of priests who celebrated Mass, carried relics, interceded with God on behalf of the army, and preached to the troops.5 By the mid-eighth century, however, new religious practices in the West imposed on military commanders the need to recruit far larger numbers of priests to serve as chaplains in their armies. The old rite of penance, which permitted Christians to confess their sins only once in a lifetime, gradually was superseded by the practice of repeatable confession. This development in church teaching, which can be traced over a three-century period, culminated in the wide acceptance of repeatable confession as an acceptable rite.6 The establishment of this new institutionalized interpretation of confession is marked first in the British Isles and then on the continent during the late seventh and early eighth century by the extensive production and diffusion of penitential manuals, sometimes described by scholars as tariff books. These handbooks for priests, many of which were produced expressly for parish clergy, set out long lists of sins and appropriate penances for each, thereby emphasizing the renewable nature of the rite.7 It was now possible for soldiers to confess their sins before every battle and thereby face the enemy with a clear conscience and a clean soul.8 But this new military pastoral responsibility brought with it the need to recruit far larger numbers of priests to serve in the army than had been the case previously. A bishop and a few priests were sufficient in the armies of the Late Empire and early Middle Ages to celebrate Mass, preach, and even pray. To hear the confessions of thousands, or even tens of thousands of soldiers, however, was far beyond the capabilities of the few clerics attached to the armies of the fourth through the early eighth century. The necessity of recruiting far larger numbers of priests to serve as military chaplains was enunciated clearly in 742 by Carloman, the Carolingian Mayor of the Palace. At a synodal assembly, called the Concilium Germanum by scholars, Carloman, acting in concert with Boniface, the papal legate to the Frankish court, instituted the requirement that every unit commander in the army have on staff a capellanus capable of hearing confessions and assigning penances.9 From this point onward, including up the present, armies in the Christian West have recruited large numbers of priests to serve as military chaplains.10 It is one of the noteworthy aspects of medieval religious history that Carloman's leading role in the establishment of requirements for the provision of pastoral care was recapitulated throughout the early and high Middle Ages by secular rather than ecclesiastical figures. Even in periods of papal strength, the bishops of Rome remained largely silent about the need to provide soldiers with pastoral care, even in the context of the crusades. …

Thomas of Marlborough: History of the Abbey of Evesham (review)

Thomas of Marlborough: History of the Abbey of Evesham. Edited and translated by Jane Sayers and Leslie Watkiss. [Oxford Medieval Texts.] (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2003. Pp. lxxxix, 597.£95.00; $150.00.) In the half-century between 1858 and 1896 the Rolls Series published well over one hundred volumes of Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages. This undertaking, directed by the Master of the Rolls as the Keeper of English government records, broke new ground in making available to English and American medievalists an impressive quantity of primary source materials in print. However, no finite beings, not even historians, will ever produce the definitive word on any given subject. It is not surprising, therefore, that in more recent years the editors of Oxford Medieval Texts (successors to Nelson's Medieval Texts after 1966) have commissioned new editions of some of these earlier volumes, with the express aim of bringing our knowledge of important records of the past up to date by making use of the latest scholarly research available. This has led to a notable increase in our understanding of the context in which these works were originally written and to fresh insights into the minds and motives of their medieval authors. The Chronicle of Evesham is one of the volumes selected as deserving of a new edition to replace the edition of 1863 by William Dunn Macray, at that time a special assistant in the Bodleian Library Oxford, chaplain, and later a Fellow of Magdalen College. One of the chief advantages of the Oxford Medieval Texts format is the Latin / English parallel text providing an accurate translation for many of today's students and scholars, who have regrettably little or no knowledge of Latin. The single manuscript source, used by both Macray and the present editors, is Bodleian Library, Ms Rawlinson A 287, folios 118-187, which contain what Macray entitled a 'Chronicle'; but it has now been renamed, more accurately, a 'History' because, as Professor Sayers and Dr. Watkiss explain, it does not so much follow a chronological sequence as present a thematic approach to events. The purpose underlying Thomas of Marlborough's writing of the History was the promotion of the dignity and status of the abbey, of which he was a prominent member, by tracing its history from the first foundation in the early eighth century to Thomas's own day. He begins by incorporating and rearranging some earlier accounts of the lives and miracles of local saints such as Odulf, Wigstan, and above all Ecgwine, the third bishop of Worcester and Evesham's first abbot. In Book III he brings his history up to his own time and then proceeds to record contemporary events in which he, as dean of the Vale of Evesham and later sacrist and then prior, played a major role. The importance of Thomas's contribution to the genre of medieval local history lies in the unique, vividly narrated account of the abbey's final and successful struggle to obtain the privilege of exemption from the diocesan jurisdiction of the bishops of Worcester. Here we are entertained with a spirited tale of the journey, in 1204, of Thomas and of his duplicitous and tyrannical abbot, Roger Norreis, to the Roman curia, of the abbot's early departure, and of Thomas's prolonged stay throughout the legal proceedings. …

El llibre manuscrit a Catalunya: orígens i esplendor , and: História del llibre manuscrit a Catalunya (review)

Reznews253 AUum i Perucho,Jesús. El llibre manuscrit a Catalunya: orígens i esplendor . Col-lecció Som i Serení, 14. Barcelona: Generalität de Catalunya, 2000. 291 pp. 216 facsimiles in color. ISBN 84-87254-82-9. Altiiro i Perucho,Jesi'is. Historia del llibre manuscrit a Catalunya. Col-lecció Textos i documents, 23. Barcelona: Generalität de Catalunya, 2003. 306 pp. 33 facsimiles in black and white. ISBN 84-393-5994-2. Jesús Alturo i Perucho has already established himself as the heir apparent to his teacher, Anscari Mundo, as the authority on Catalan manuscript books through a series of valuable studies on more narrowly defined aspects of this subject (see El llibre manuscrit 283, and Historia del llibir manuscrit, passim in footnotes). He presents us in these two books with a panoramic view dealing with almost even- aspect of the manuscript book in Cataluña. We are reviewing these two volumes together because, as far as their texts are concerned, they are essentially the same book except for minor verbal differences . They have, however, major differences from non-textual points of view. El llibre manuscrit a Catalunya: orígens i esplendor (Llibre) seems intended for a more popular and affluent audience. It has no footnotes but well over 200 unnumbered facsimiles in beautiful color. Historia del llibre manuscrit a Catalunya (Historia) seems intended for a more scholarly and impecunious audience. It has 533 footnotes but only 33 unnumbered black-and-white facsimiles. Cataluña is understood here very expansively in terms ofboth place and time. The author does not limit himself to the present borders of the region and deals with manuscript books produced and preserved within the Catalan sphere of influence before there even was a Cataluña. The first chapter, devoted to the book in Antiquity, actually has to be based on extant manuscripts from beyond the borders ofeven what we might call "greater" Cataluña, and this is also partially the case in the second chapter treating the Visigothic era. Catalan lands proper make their appearance in the third chapter dealing with the book in the eighth to the twelfth centuries. The following chapter on the Gothic period goes up to the introduction of the printing press. OnIv the humanistic manuscript book is neglected. A fifth and final chapter deals with the making of the medieval book in its material, codicological aspects. U CORoNICA 33.1 (Fall, 2004): 253-55 254ReviewsLa coránica 33.1, 2004 The breadth of coverage can be shown by an analysis of the contents of the last three chapters. The first of these, Chapter three, begins with a treatment of the scripts used. The presentation is brief, since this does not pretend to be a study of paleography as such, and for the most part it does not give references to facsimiles of the scripts as they are being discussed in the text, even though the facsimiles, especially in Llibre but also in Historia, show these manuscript hands. Incidentally, the author advocates the very plausible view that the Visigothic script originated by the mid-seventh century (Llibre, 49; Historia, 59, ? 109), although no example survives from before the early eighth century. The chapter then continues with a discussion of literacy in Cataluña (the laity was mostly illiterate), the books that were read during the eighth to twelfth centuries, the literary production of Cataluña (not very extensive), and the cultural renewal of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. A following section on the readers and the distribution of books in this period describes the libraries, both institutional (monastic, cathedral, and parish) and private (of bishops, canons, rural priests, laity, and women), in which the books were preserved. This is followed by sections dealing with the system of book production and the price of books, the theft of books, the lending of books, the fixed and the mobile library, the scriptorium, and, at considerable length, the social condition of scribes. The fourth chapter on the Gothic period again begins with a brief treatment of scripts, of both documents and books. This is followed by a discussion of the tomes made, used, bought, sold, etc. in the university milieu: Lleida...

Focus: The Olympic Games, ancient and modern

2004 is an Olympic year, so it is worth directing some attention to the ‘inventors’ of the Olympic Games, the ancient Greeks who, in the early eighth century BC, according to at least one tradition, founded the Olympic Games in the precinct of Zeus, an area on the Peloponnese not far from the later city of Elis. The ‘inventor’ of the new Olympic Games in 1896, the French Baron, Pierre de Coubertin, drew at least part of his inspiration from the ancient predecessors. What was the status of the ancient Olympics in the world of sports in the Greco-Roman period; what sort of sport was practised in Olympia? Who were the participating athletes and, above all, why did they practice their sports and why did they participate in the Olympics? Was it the case that it was a gentlemanly amateur activity and that commercialism in sport is just a modern deviation?

Mothers of a Hybrid Dynasty: Race, Genealogy, and Acculturation in al-Andalus

One of the enduring debates among historians of Iberian culture is the question of how acculturation (or transculturation) occurred in the Iberian Peninsula, where large populations of Christians descended from HispanoRomans and Visigoths lived alongside Muslim Arabs, Muslim Berbers, and Jews from 711–1492 and after. At the extremes of the political and intellectual camps, Iberian culture has been characterized as either the product of a dark-skinned, Muslim, North African people who conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the early eighth century and were only partially expelled after 1492, or an essence that is European, Christian, and white.1 Today most scholars adopt the more reasonable position that Spain and Portugal are the result of an intermingling of those peoples with a generous admixture of Jews.2 These perspectives describe the consequence of convivencia (cohabitation) but they rarely address the question of how such cultural diversity occurred. Convivencia is a loose term that suggests that by virtue of living in close proximity the people of the Iberian peninsula enjoyed cultural diversity and a corresponding richness of artistic forms and styles between the arrival of Islam in 711 and the expulsions in 1492. But history shows that, just as military and political frontiers do not necessarily prevent trade on the popular level, the proximity of diverse groups does not in and of itself cause interchange.3 With respect to al-Andalus, historians have rarely agreed on how diversity was achieved. One argument is that Arabs and Muslim Berbers came to Spain in 711, met a population descended from Roman and Visigothic Christians, married and produced children with the genes and cultural formation of both groups, and suddenly Spain became a melting pot of many ethnic flavors. Opponents to this model point out that the Muslim army that crossed the Straits of Gibraltar in 711 did not consist solely of men; the soldiers traveled with their families, and so, instead of an

Reconquest and crusade in medieval Spain

Drawing from both Christian and Islamic sources, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain demonstrates that the clash of arms between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian peninsula that began in the early eighth century was transformed into a crusade by the papacy during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Successive popes accorded to Christian warriors willing to participate in the peninsular wars against Islam the same crusading benefits offered to those going to the Holy Land. Joseph F. O'Callaghan clearly demonstrates that any study of the history of the crusades must take a broader view of the Mediterranean to include medieval Spain. Following a chronological overview of crusading in the Iberian peninsula from the late eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century, O'Callaghan proceeds to the study of warfare, military finance, and the liturgy of reconquest and crusading. He concludes his book with a consideration of the later stages of reconquest and crusade up to and including the fall of Granada in 1492, while noting that the spiritual benefits of crusading bulls were still offered to the Spanish until the Second Vatican Council of 1963. Although the conflict described in this book occurred more than eight hundred years ago, recent events remind the world that the intensity of belief, rhetoric, and action that gave birth to crusade, holy war, and jihad remains a powerful force in the twenty-first century.

Dress Accessories of Late Antiquity in Jordan

The article discusses seven brooches and some 50 belt buckles from the Late Antique period in Jordan. All pieces presented here are part of male dress, very probably worn by officials. Although the existing provenance material is not the best, it is possible to reconstruct a continuous development of dress accessories from the late-fourth until the seventh or early-eighth centuries AD. The author suggests that belt buckles of Byzantine style were still worn in Umayyad times.

Simon Magus, Nicolas of Antioch, and Muhammad

Scholars of the Middle Ages have established that in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there was an intellectual shift in the Christian polemic against Islam. Whereas in earlier centuries heresiologists defined Islam as pagan, in the high Middle Ages the prevailing opinion emerged that it was instead a heresy. Medieval writers, who drew upon a rich theological tradition dating to the patristic era, sustained and expanded this new perspective. Many of the patristic theological refutations against heretics proved once again useful as groups such as the Waldensians, Albigensians, and others made serious challenges against the dominant orthodoxy. Even though Islam had already been a formidable presence in the Mediterranean—especially since the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in the early eighth century—in the high Middle Ages the continued expansion of Islam, including its defeat of the Crusaders, was perceived to be an increased threat to Christendom. A corollary development was the greater interest in Islam—mainly to discredit or refute it—by some leading western Christian theologians. One thing is certain: medieval writers were intent on demonstrating the heretical nature of Islamic doctrines and the perversity of Islamic morality. Medieval polemicists, however, resorted to a standard theological weapon to assault Islam, typology. Through typology medieval writers were capable of constructing alleged historical and doctrinal links between Muhammad and two of the most notorious “types” of heresy from early Christianity: Simon Magus and Nicolas of Antioch.

Archaeology, history, and geology of the A.D. 749 earthquake, Dead Sea transform

Historical records of earthquakes can contribute significantly to understanding active faulting and seismic hazards. However, pre–twentieth century historians were unaware of the association of earthquakes and fault ruptures. Consequently, historical texts usually report the time and damage caused by earthquakes, but not the associated faults. Conversely, observed fault ruptures are often difficult to date. In order to overcome these difficulties, we have analyzed archaeological and sedimentological observations in recent excavations in the ancient city of Tiberias and have combined them with interpretation of historical accounts. Tiberias was founded in A.D. 19 by King Herod on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Kinneret). Herod9s stadium, exposed in these excavations for the first time, was damaged by boulder-bearing flash floods and by an earthquake. Later buildings, dated as late as the early eighth century, are all covered by alluvium and lake deposits. They are also damaged and offset by normal faults, whereas buildings from the late eighth century are intact. We therefore attribute the damage to the earthquake of 18 January 749. The paleoseismic observations are in good agreement with the distribution of damage on the basis of historical records. Both data sets indicate a 100-km-long rupture segment between the Kinneret and the Dead Sea pull-apart basins, demonstrating that it is capable of generating M > 7 earthquakes.

The Early History of theZhouyi cantong qi

(2002). The Early History of the Zhouyi cantong qi. Journal of Chinese Religions: Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 149-176.

‘Nostrorum socordiam temporum’: the reforming impulse of Bede’s later exegesis

This paper attempts to provide a synoptic view of the thematic development of Bede’s exergesis. It examines a selection of his commentaries written at different periods in his career and, by placing them against the social and political background of early eighth–century Northumbria, tries to indicate some important differences amongst them. The core of my argument is that, in contrast to his early commentaries, Bede’s mature exegesis is decisively infused by the aims and concerns of his later non–exegetical works such as the Ecclesiastical History and the Letter to Ecgberht. It will be shown, for example, that earlier commentaries such as On the Apocalypse and On Acts devote less attention to pastoral concerns than do such later works as On Ezra and Nehemiah, On the Tabernacle and On the Temple. Further, the earlier commentaries contain fewer topical comments on the social and religious demise of contemporary Northumbria than the later exegesis (especially On Ezra and Nehemiah), comments whose substance and tone align this later work with the reform program of the Ecgberht letter. By considering these and other related issues, my analysis has a twofold aim: to provide a better sense of the overall shape and development of Bede’s commentaries, and to highlight the social investedness and intertextuality of his later writings as a whole.

Paper before print: the history and impact of paper in the Islamic world

Like the printing press, typewriter, and computer, paper has been a crucial agent for the dissemination of information. This engaging book presents an important new chapter in paper's history: how its use in Islamic lands during the Middle Ages influenced almost every aspect of medieval life. Focusing on the spread of paper from the early eighth century, when Muslims in West Asia acquired Chinese knowledge of paper and papermaking, to five centuries later, when they transmitted this knowledge to Christians in Spain and Sicily, the book reveals how paper utterly transformed the passing of knowledge and served as a bridge between cultures. Jonathan Bloom traces the earliest history of paper - how it was invented in China over 2,000 years ago, how it entered the Islamic lands of West Asia and North Africa, and how it spread to northern Europe. He explores the impact of paper on the development of writing, books, mathematics, music, art, architecture, and even cooking. And he discusses why Europe was so quick to adopt paper from the Islamic lands and why the Islamic lands were so slow to accept printing in return. Together the beautifully written text and delightful illustrations of papermaking techniques and the many uses to which paper was put give new lustre and importance to a now-humble material.

The early Irish church and marriage: an analysis of the Hibernensis

The modern view of marriage in early Ireland has been drastically changed by recent work, but much remains to be done in this field. From an examination of books 45 and 46 of the Collectio canonum hibernensis, for example, we can deduce what were the policies and attitudes on the part of the church which must have influenced native Irish laws. The provisions concerned basically conform to the continental norm in moral matters, but as regards the legal dimension, especially where property is involved, they tend to adopt the provisions of native laws. Traces of Roman law, which Ó Corráin proposed to see in Cáin lánamna, are not obvious. Moreover, though the Hibernensis and Cáin lánamna do not differ in every respect, their dissimilar natures cannot be overlooked. In conclusion, it will be argued that the success of the church was not so total by the early eighth century as Ó Corráin maintained.

A Moabite Sanctuary at Khirbat al-Mudayna

The discovery at Khirbat al-Mudayna on the Wadi ath-Thamad of a small temple within a walled town in central Jordan is a first for ancient Moab. This building, identified as a sanctuary on the basis of its plastered benches and limestone altars, is not a national temple with direct access entry. Rather, it is a local sanctuary, with indirect access front an alleyway that runs parallel to the south wall of the innermost room of the six-chambered gate. This paper includes a report on Sanctuary 149, excavated during the 1999 season. Of greatest interest are the three stone altars ; two are painted, and one is also inscribed. These altars, each of a different type, suggest the range of cultic activities practiced in such a temple. Due to its position adjacent to the gate and to its construction history, the sanctuary probably dates to the early eighth century B.C.

The Hostage An Shigao and His Offspring: An Iranian Family in China (review)

Reviewed by: The Hostage An Shigao and His Offspring: An Iranian Family in China Albert Welter (bio) Antonino Forte . The Hostage An Shigao and His Offspring: An Iranian Family in China. Occasional Papers 6. Kyoto: Italian School of East Asian Studies, 1995. x, 152 pp. Paperback, ISBN 4-900793-08-6. The Hostage An Shigao and His Offspring concerns the figure of An Shigao, the Parthian crown prince who renounced his throne to become a monk, arriving in A.D. 148 in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, where he became the most important translator of Buddhist texts in the early period of their diffusion in China. It also concerns An Shigao's legacy, but not as this is usually understood. The "legacy" here centers on the accomplishments of An Shigao's descendants in Chinese history through the mid-Tang dynasty. If the volume is to be judged according to the author's stated aim, namely to raise questions without pretending to solve any problems (p. ix), then it is a resounding success. The questions raised are both [End Page 434] large and small, with implications for our overall understanding of Chinese history and for the particulars upon which this understanding is based. While the implications of this study for Chinese historians and students of Chinese Buddhism are immense, Forte is cautious when assessing the accomplishments of the current monograph. The subject of An Shigao has long been of interest to the author, who first published an article (in Italian) on An Shigao in 1968. Pressed by other scholarly concerns, Forte was unable to return to the subject until recently, when he came across additional records dealing with An Shigao and proceeded at the urging of the Japanese scholar Makita Tairyô, to whom the volume is dedicated. The book itself is a revised and enlarged version of a seminar presentation delivered at the Italian School of East Asian Studies in Kyoto in 1991, and of an abstract version presented in Japanese a few days later at the forty-second meeting of the Bukkyôshi gakkai (Society for the History of Buddhism) held at Bukkyô University in Kyoto. The latter resulted in a published version of the study in the Society's journal (Bukkyôshigaku kenkyû) in 1992, which, because of time constraints, resulted in a shorter, provisional version that the author deemed unsatisfactory. Forte continues to be modest about the state of the current version and states that he feels "somewhat overwhelmed by the complexity of the problems being raised" (p. ix). Readers can only sympathize. Hopefully, however, those who read this volume will begin to adjust their antenna to incorporate the implications of these problems for their own investigations. The outline of the book's contents may be summarized as follows. The Introduction (pp. 1-12) provides an overview of the three chapters that follow, introducing the main figures, topics, and questions to be addressed, as well as the types of sources to be consulted. Chapter 1 (pp. 13-39) considers evidence regarding An Shigao from literary sources, divided into three groups: biographies, genealogies, and rhyme dictionaries. Chapter 2 (pp. 41-63) deals with epigraphical material, namely the stele inscriptions of three prominent An family members active in the seventh and early eighth centuries. Chapter 3 (pp. 65-90) offers some tentative remarks on the early Buddhist sources on the monk An Shigao and the context in which he operated. The Conclusion (pp. 91-93) raises some additional general considerations resulting from the study. In addition, there are two appendixes on specific matters arising from the study. Appendix A (pp. 95-99) is titled "An Early Eighth Century Edict Ordering the Repatriation of Hostages." Appendix B (pp. 100-107) concerns "The Origin of An Lushan's Family Name An." Also included are a "Genealogical Chart of An Shigao's Family" (p. 109), listing known members from the late second through the eighth centuries, a Bibliography (pp. 111-134), and an Index (pp. 135-152). The questions addressed in the study are essentially three: (1) the identification of the Iranian prince An Shigao, (2) the role played in Chinese society and [End Page 435] history by the family who claimed An...

Hazor and the North in the Iron Age: A Low Chronology Perspective

The article deals with the dating of the Iron Age II strata at Hazor and with historical developments on the border between the two most powerful Iron Age II states in the Levant-the northern kingdom of Israel and Aram Damascus. It first discusses the relative chronology of three northern sites-Megiddo, Jezreel, and Hazor-establishing the similarity between Megiddo VA-IVB and the Jezreel compound and reviewing the relationship between the assemblages of those sites and Hazor X. The article then describes the dating of the Hazor strata according to Yadin (and recently Ben-Tor), pointing out the shaky arguments regarding the affiliation of Stratum X with Solomon and indicating the difficulties of the Yadin chronological system for reconstruction of the history of the region in the Iron Age II. Next the article reviews Hazor's stratigraphy in the light of the Low Chronology which has recently been suggested for Iron Age II strata in the Levant. Applying the Low Chronology to Hazor seems to solve most of the difficulties created by the Yadin scheme. Strata X and IX are downdated to the days of the Omrides, and Strata VIII and VII to the reign of Hazael, King of Damascus. Hence the destruction of Hazor IX is attributed to the expansion of Damascus, which is related in the Dan inscription, and the destruction of Hazor VII is attributed to the renewed domination of the northern kingdom in the region under Joash or Jeroboam II. Finally, the article proposes an early eighth century B. C. E. date for the construction of Stratum IVA at Megiddo.

The Making of an Urartian Landscape in Southern Transcaucasia: A Study of Political Architectonics

In the early eighth century B. C., Argishti I, King of Urartu, conquered southern Transcaucasia and began a dramatic transformation of the local landscape into an instrument of imperial authority. This article details the changing spatial organization of political power on the Ararat and Shirak plains from the emergence of the earliest states in the late second millennium B. C. through the collapse of the Urartian empire in the late seventh century B. C. Spatial patterns defined by built forms were active elements in organizing political relations between subjects and the Urartian state apparatus and between institutional elements of the empire. This analysis suggests that an architectonic approach to political authority can bring a critical perspective to investigations of how particular spatial relations contributed to the production, reproduction, and collapse of ancient states.

Memorializing Gregory the Great: the origin and transmission of a papal cult in the seventh and early eighth centuries

This article examines the origins and early development of the cult of Pope Gregory the Great (590–604) in Rome, England, Gaul and Ireland. A first section analyses the earliest Life of the pope, written between 704 and 714 at the Northumbrian monastery of Whitby, arguing that it depended not upon oral tradition but upon early writings originating among Gregory’s disciples in Rome and in part at least recorded by John Moschus. A second section relates this material to the development of Gregory’s cult in the seventh and early eighth centuries, highlighting the activity of Archbishop Theodore in England. Although clerical rather than popular, the cult thus promoted established Gregory’s reputation as a pastor, evangelist and father of the Latin liturgy.