Integrating large language models and active inference to understand eye movements in reading and dyslexia.

Hemispheric lateralization has been central to developmental dyslexia research for over a century, yet its role in the aetiology of reading and language deficits remains elusive. While altered asymmetries have long been implicated, evidence is inconsistent, with limited consideration given to individual variability in lateralization patterns. This study investigated hemispheric lateralization in 35 adults with dyslexia and 35 matched controls using functional MRI across three language tasks: word generation, rhyming decision and lexical decision. Laterality indices were calculated to comprehensively assess the strength, direction, and consistency of activation across global and regional task-specific brain areas. Significant group differences were not found in the absolute strength of lateralization for global measures or any regional measures, except in the fusiform gyrus, where people with dyslexia showed lower asymmetry. Directional asymmetry was similar across the two groups, except in the fusiform gyrus during the reading task, where dyslexic individuals showed a higher prevalence of right hemisphere lateralization compared to controls. Interestingly, we found that dyslexic participants demonstrated greater inconsistency in regional lateralization during reading and rhyming tasks. Among individuals with dyslexia, those with inconsistent lateralization in the reading task had weaker fusiform lateralization, although fusiform lateralization strength itself did not predict reading outcomes. Our findings suggest that dyslexia is characterized by inconsistent, rather than universally weaker, lateralization patterns. Inconsistencies in task-related and regional lateralization may disrupt the efficiency of language networks, contributing to observed reading deficits. By highlighting the role of regional and task-specific inconsistencies, this study provides new insights into the neural mechanisms underlying dyslexia and underscores the importance of considering individual variability in hemispheric lateralization when investigating language disorders.

This article presents a literature review on reading and writing learning difficulties in children and reveals those issues as a risk to developing dyslexia cases. This is a complex subject, since it involves biological, cognitive, emotional, familiar, environmental, socioeconomic and pedagogical factors. It is, therefore, a topic of multidisciplinary interest comprising educational, academic and clinical contexts. Besides, this work also intends to point out the recurrent educational intervention for dyslexia in studies concerning that matter. Through this review, educators of dyslexic individuals will be able to learn more about possible methods of educational interventions, which can help to promote the cognitive development of those people. A method of literature review based on books, specialized periodicals and websites was used to build this article. The conclusion it has come to is that, although most children learn how to read and write without presenting important problems, some of them come across difficulties in the acquisition and development of such abilities. In order to properly advise those children and their families, a detailed assessment conducted by a specialized team of professionals is needed, as well as the construction of a multidisciplinary intervention plan aiming their cognitive development.

Artificial intelligence tools can benefit dyslexic individuals by supporting them in improving their educational skills, particularly in the areas of linguistics, spelling and reading. To contextualize our research work, we assumed that educational literacy disorders, in particular, language learning in individuals affected by dyslexia could partly be attributable to a deficiency in implicit learning. However, research into artificial learning of implicit visual linguistics (the case of grammar as an example) has frequently led to null results. Based primarily on previous work, notably by (van Witteloostuijn et al., 2017), this research aims to assess the evidence accumulated to date by conducting a meta-analysis-type review of research on implicit visual learning (grammar as a concrete example) in the context of dyslexic disorders. We thus selected fifteen (15) studies via a systematic literature review, which included data from 274 practitioners with dyslexia as well as 306 control practitioners (with an average age ranging from 7 to 38 years). If the 15 selected studies constitute a representative random sample, individuals with dyslexia tend to perform significantly worse than their non dyslexic counterparts (weighted mean effect = 0.43, 95% CI [0.11–0.67], p = 0.006). This effect appears to be more pronounced among students than among young adults (p = 0.049; with weighted mean effects of 0.78 [statistically significant] and 0.12 [not significant], respectively). However, evidence of publication bias raises concerns that unpublished studies might counterbalance these findings. While the analyzed studies suggest that artificial implicit linguistic learning—particularly grammatical learning—is impaired in individuals with dyslexia (especially in students and to a lesser extent, if at all, in young adults), the presence of publication bias suggests that this observed effect may ultimately be unreliable or even illusory.

Reading it right: Delineating the struggles of a dyslexic individual

Dyslexia, a learning disability affecting reading, has been extensively studied using eye movements. This study aimed to examine in the same design the effects of different psycholinguistic variables, i.e., grammatical category, lexical frequency, word length and orthographic consistency on eye movement patterns during reading in adults. We compared the eye movements of forty university students, twenty with and twenty without dyslexia while they read aloud a meaningful and a meaningless text in order to examine whether semantic context could enhance their reading strategy. Dyslexic participants made more reading errors and had longer reading time particularly with the meaningless text, suggesting an increased reliance on the semantic context to enhance their reading strategy. They also made more progressive and regressive fixations while reading the two texts. Similar results were found when examining grammatical categories. These findings suggest a reduced visuo-attentional span and reliance on a serial decoding approach during reading, likely based on grapheme-to-phoneme conversion. Furthermore, in the whole text analysis, there was no difference in fixation duration between the groups. However, when examining word length, only the control group exhibited a distinction between longer and shorter words. No significant group differences emerged for word frequency. Importantly, multiple regression analyses revealed that orthographic consistency predicted fixation durations only in the control group, suggesting that dyslexic readers were less sensitive to phonological regularities-possibly due to underlying phonological deficits. These findings suggest the involvement of both phonological and visuo-attentional deficits in dyslexia. Combined remediation strategies may enhance dyslexic individuals' performance in phonological and visuo-attentional tasks.

Impaired neural discrimination of regular words from pseudowords in dyslexic adults as revealed by fast periodic visual stimulation.

In recent years, the need to design inclusive workplaces has grown, particularly in manufacturing contexts where high cognitive demands may disadvantage neurodiverse individuals. In manufacturing environments, neurodiverse workers often experience difficulties processing standard instructions, increasing cognitive load and errors and reducing overall performance. This study proposes a methodology to assess cognitive load during assembly tasks to support workers with dyslexia. A multi-layer fuzzy logic framework was developed, integrating physiological, environmental, and task-related data. Physiological signals, including heart rate, heart rate variability, electrodermal activity, and eye-tracking data, were collected using wearable sensors. Ambient conditions were also measured. The model emphasizes the Reading dimension of cognitive load, critical for dyslexic individuals challenged by text-based instructions. A controlled laboratory study with 18 neurotypical participants simulated dyslexia scenarios with and without support, compared to a control condition. Results indicated that a lack of support increased cognitive load and reduced performance in complex tasks. In simpler tasks, control participants showed higher cognitive effort, possibly employing overcompensation strategies by exerting additional cognitive resources to maintain performance. Support mechanisms, such as audio prompts, effectively reduced cognitive load, highlighting the framework’s potential for fostering inclusive practices in industrial environments.

Dyslexia, a distinct learning disorder, manifests through persistent challenges in reading, writing, and spelling, stemming from impaired phonological processing abilities. Addressing dyslexia through medical intervention alone remains an impractical pursuit; rather, its obstacles may be overcome through a confluence of specialized educational methodologies and compassionate psychosocial support. Thoughtfully curated pedagogical approaches, in harmony with effective learning strategies, empower dyslexic individuals to attain remarkable linguistic proficiency. While scientific inquiry has deepened our comprehension of dyslexia from a biological perspective, a persistent void in pedagogical understanding continues to hinder its effective remediation. In light of this, the present study re-examines the intricate interplay between teaching and learning in the context of dyslexia. Delving into the foundational principles of instruction, adaptive learning strategies, and individualized educational frameworks, this discourse aspires to bridge the chasm between theory and practice. Recognizing the inherent difficulties, embracing appropriate methodologies, and fostering success through essential pedagogical practices collectively underscore the imperative of inclusivity within academic curricula. We assert that a refined educational lens on dyslexia will pave the way for informed, transformative teaching and learning paradigms.

Dyslexia-friendly Latin typefaces have been proliferating during the last decade with academic evidence that they improve the reading experience. However, a significant gap exists for Arabic readers with dyslexia, as there is a lack of dyslexia-friendly typefaces designed specifically for the Arabic script. The understanding of dyslexic readers’ perceptions regarding text written in dyslexia-friendly Arabic typefaces remains limited. This study addresses this gap by investigating participants’ perceptual responses to a prototype Arabic-accessible typeface, particularly in its visual aspect. Grounded in User-centred Design (UCD) principles and Maag’s Pillars of Accessible Typography (MPAT) framework, the research aims to assess the efficacy of a dyslexia-friendly Arabic typeface in alleviating visual distortions experienced by dyslexic readers while ensuring aesthetic appeal and user satisfaction. Utilizing focus group methodology, participants’ emotional engagement, legibility, and readability of the typeface were evaluated, thus informing the refinement of design criteria established in a previous study. By engaging dyslexic readers in the early stages of typeface design, this research contributes valuable insights into the complex requirements of designing inclusive Arabic typography, advancing accessibility efforts, and enhancing reading experiences for dyslexic individuals as well as encouraging inclusive design practices.

Objective: Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) can safely influence brain activity, enhancing cognitive functions and offering potential benefits for learning disabilities like dyslexia. This paper aims to fill the current gap in comprehensive reviews on NIBS studies specifically targeting dyslexic individuals. Method : we conducted a systematic review across several databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and CENTRAL Cochrane. The initial search strategy was designed to be as comprehensive as possible to capture all pertinent studies. We did not impose any language restrictions or time constraints during our search. The strategy was initially created using MEDLINE MeSH terms and subsequently adapted for the other databases. Our search included the keywords "dyslexia" in combination with "NIBS", "transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)", "transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)", and other NIBS types like repetitive TMS and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS). Results: 17 randomized controlled trial (RCT) studies were found to meet the eligibility criteria and are included in this review. Findings showed that repeated tDCS sessions, when paired with reading interventions, can effectively enhance reading abilities. Studies indicate that anodal tDCS applied to the left temporo-parietal cortex (TPC) and cathodal tDCS to the right TPC, along with phonology-based reading training, have led to improvements in various reading metrics, including the reading of pseudo-words and low-frequency words. Notably, traditional reading areas appear to respond well to modulation through NIBS, and facilitative protocols can enhance various subprocesses related to reading. Conclusion: Research indicates that tDCS, when used with reading interventions, enhances specific reading skills in individuals with dyslexia. Additionally, gamma-tACS applied to the left auditory cortex yields short-term improvements in neurophysiological responses to auditory stimuli. However, further randomized controlled trials with long-term follow-ups are necessary to establish the clinical effectiveness of these interventions.

Dyslexia is a widespread, lifelong neurobiological condition that impacts an individual's ability to read, write, and spell. People with dyslexia often face difficulties in traditional educational settings, as conventional teaching methods do not align with their unique learning styles. To bridge this gap, we have developed an innovative web-based application designed to provide comprehensive reading, comprehension, and accessibility support. Our platform incorporates multiple assistive features tailored to the needs of dyslexic individuals. One of the core functionalities is a text-to-speech feature that reads aloud user-provided text, helping users process written content more effectively. Additionally, our PDF-to-speech converter enhances document accessibility by converting digital text into speech, making it easier for individuals to engage with educational or professional materials. For visual learners, we offer an image generation function that transforms text into meaningful visuals, aiding comprehension through pictorial representation. The application also includes a symbol recognition tool, which identifies and interprets common symbols such as school zones, road signs, and warning labels, ensuring better understanding of critical visual information. To further enhance readability, our dyslexia-friendly text converter simplifies complex words and replaces them with more accessible alternatives, making reading a smoother experience. Leveraging natural language processing (NLP), optical character recognition (OCR), and responsive web design, this platform is dedicated to empowering individuals with dyslexia by fostering improved reading, comprehension, and overall accessibility.

The objective of this study is to evaluate whether the presumed disadvantages of dyslexia offer advantages for entrepreneurship. This study explores whether the presumed disadvantages of dyslexia offer advantages in entrepreneurship. It evaluates the impact of dyslexia on entrepreneurial success, distinguishes it from ADHD, and investigates how dyslexia specifically influences entrepreneurial experiences and outcomes. The research identifies traits commonly associated with dyslexia—such as holistic thinking, creativity, and problem-solving abilities—that align and are recognized as beneficial for entrepreneurial success with criteria found in various entrepreneurial profiles. Additionally, the study underscores the importance of intuition in entrepreneurial decision-making, a trait often developed and enhanced by individuals with dyslexia due to their unique cognitive experiences. While dyslexia and ADHD frequently co-occur, (comorbidity) this study specifically focuses on dyslexia to discern its unique impacts on entrepreneurship. Despite challenges such as difficulties in reading, spelling, and organization, dyslexic individuals often exhibit strengths that can be advantageous in entrepreneurial settings. These strengths include a heightened ability to see the big picture, innovative problem-solving skills, and a strong intuitive approach to decision-making. The research demonstrates how self-employment and thereby self-shaped environments enable individuals to leverage these strengths effectively by allowing entrepreneurs to tailor their work conditions to their cognitive profiles. In conclusion, this study reframes dyslexia from a perceived disadvantage to a potential asset in entrepreneurship, demonstrating that individuals can transform these challenges into significant entrepreneurial advantages.

Abstract Learning disabilities like dyslexia are commonly prevalent among young school children. Dyslexia is a neurological disorder that can drastically impact a child’s academic life and mental health, often resulting in low self-esteem. This research study aims to design and implement an easy-to-use computer-aided diagnosis tool for the early detection of dyslexia, ensuring that dyslexic children can receive timely support from teachers and experts. The novel framework, which incorporates Super-Resolution Generative Adversarial Network, and a custom-built convolutional neural network model based on transfer learning technique, achieves 92.52% accuracy in the classification of handwriting of either dyslexic or non-dyslexic individuals.

Background Limited research exists on the intricate relationship between dyslexia diagnoses and the impact of associated labels on adults. Dyslexia, affecting one in 10 adults, forming one of the largest neurodivergent groups, involves a diagnostic label that communicates difficulties but can also perpetuate stigma. This multifaceted condition includes biological, psychological, and social factors, with diverse terms used globally shaping societal perceptions. Methods This qualitative study, part of broader Australian research on dyslexic adults in employment, aims to explore preferences and perspectives on dyslexia-related labels. Involving 14 dyslexic individuals and 4 employers/managers, the study uses semi-structured interviews, employing discourse content analysis and interpretative repertoires methodology within an Intersectionality Framework. Four repertoires emerge, addressing Dyslexia the Label, Disability Label Paradigm, Dyslexia Is Not a Superpower, and The Impact of Labels on Sense of Self. Participants preferred ‘dyslexia’ over broader labels like ‘disability’, rejecting the superpower notion, while employers see dyslexia positively within work environments. Conclusion This study highlights the need for targeted support, advocating for strength-based labels to enhance self-perception and workplace environments, while addressing ableism. It calls for the dismantling of discriminatory practices in education, employment, and society for dyslexics. The research's novelty lies in its focus on adult dyslexic experiences within Australian workplaces.

Probabilistic and explainable modeling of Phase–Phase Cross-Frequency Coupling patterns in EEG. Application to dyslexia diagnosis

This paper explores the evolving perceptions of bilingualism and developmental dyslexia, shifting from viewing them as deficits to acknowledging their inherent strengths. This overview contributes to the evolving narrative surrounding dyslexia and bilingualism, urging a revaluation of these conditions from deficit-centered perspectives to recognize the diverse cognitive abilities and adaptive advantages they offer. It delves into the positive aspects associated with developmental dyslexia, highlighting cognitive strengths like visuospatial skills, narrative reasoning, and dynamic reasoning.Additionally, it examines the multifaceted nature of bilingualism, outlining distinctions between types of bilingualism and emphasizing cognitive benefits such as enhanced cognitive flexibility, attentional skills, and executive functions among bilingual individuals. The complexities of language acquisition, socioeconomic factors, and societal support are discussed in understanding the interplay between language acquisition and cognitive development in bilingual contexts. Furthermore, the paper navigates the intricate connection between dyslexia and bilingualism, emphasizing factors like language exposure, linguistic characteristics, and individual cognitive processes that influence their interaction. Dyslexia significantly impacts language acquisition and proficiency in both native and second languages, requiring tailored assessments and interventions for dyslexic bilingual individuals.

Dyslexia is a neurological disorder that affects an individual's language processing abilities. Early care and intervention can help dyslexic individuals succeed academically and socially. Recent developments in deep learning (DL) approaches motivate researchers to build dyslexia detection models (DDMs). DL approaches facilitate the integration of multi-modality data. However, there are few multi-modality-based DDMs. In this study, the authors built a DL-based DDM using multi-modality data. A squeeze and excitation (SE) integrated MobileNet V3 model, self-attention mechanisms (SA) based EfficientNet B7 model, and early stopping and SA-based Bi-directional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM) models were developed to extract features from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI, and electroencephalography (EEG) data. In addition, the authors fine-tuned the LightGBM model using the Hyperband optimization technique to detect dyslexia using the extracted features. Three datasets containing FMRI, MRI, and EEG data were used to evaluate the performance of the proposed DDM. The findings supported the significance of the proposed DDM in detecting dyslexia with limited computational resources. The proposed model outperformed the existing DDMs by producing an optimal accuracy of 98.9%, 98.6%, and 98.8% for the FMRI, MRI, and EEG datasets, respectively. Healthcare centers and educational institutions can benefit from the proposed model to identify dyslexia in the initial stages. The interpretability of the proposed model can be improved by integrating vision transformers-based feature extraction.

Dyslexia is classed as a neurobiological difficulty and is referred to as a Specific Learning Disability (SPLD) that primarily affects reading, writing, working memory (WM), and organisational skills. Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) have been found to increase self-esteem, self-efficacy, and confidence and lower anxiety among students with dyslexia. Therefore, to summarise the current evidence on PPIs, a narrative review was undertaken. The review synthesised the findings from six studies that investigated PPIs for dyslexic individuals across various education settings. Four key themes emerged: (1) characteristics and effectiveness of PPIs, (2) level of education, (3) gender differences, and (4) PPIs differences in Western and Eastern countries. The analysis revealed that group interventions in secondary schools positively impacted self-esteem and social skills among dyslexic pupils, while the efficacy of sunflower therapy for dyslexic children showed inconclusive results on academic performance but potential psychological benefits. Socioemotional wellbeing programmes for dyslexic children yielded mixed outcomes, with temporary increases in self-esteem post-programme. Mindfulness meditation demonstrated promise in improving reading accuracy and attention functions in adults with dyslexia. Positive psychology group interventions effectively enhanced subjective wellbeing, academic self-concept, and achievement among dyslexic children. Early interventions showed promise in improving coping strategies, perceived control, and overall wellbeing among students with dyslexia. This review highlights the potential benefits of diverse interventions across different educational settings, emphasising the importance of early support and targeted interventions for individuals with dyslexia.

The nature and cause of auditory processing deficits in dyslexic individuals have been debated for decades. Auditory processing deficits were argued to be the first step in a causal chain of difficulties, leading to difficulties in speech perception and thereby phonological processing and literacy difficulties. More recently, it has been argued that auditory processing difficulties may not be causally related to language and literacy difficulties. This study compares two groups who have phonological processing impairments for different reasons: dyslexia and a history of otitis media (OM). We compared their discrimination thresholds and response variability to chronological age- and reading age-matched controls, across three auditory processing tasks: frequency discrimination, rise-time discrimination and speech perception. Dyslexic children showed raised frequency discrimination thresholds in comparison with age-matched controls but did not differ from reading age-matched controls or individuals with a history of OM. There were no group differences on speech perception or rise-time tasks. For the dyslexic children, there was an association between phonological awareness and frequency discrimination response variability, but no association with thresholds. These findings are not consistent with a 'causal chain' explanation but could be accounted for within a multiple deficits view of literacy difficulties.