Dual Language Learners (DLLs) who become English proficient earlier experience better academic outcomes, but longitudinal research on the relationship between the timing of DLLs acquiring English proficiency and later academic outcomes while accounting for relevant factors is rare. We examined how the year in school in which DLL students (N = 14,852; 47% female; 85% in poverty; 88% Latinx, 8% Black, and 3% White/Asian/Other) acquired English proficiency (according to school system criteria) correlates with their later middle school (sixth–eighth grade) academic outcomes (GPA, standardized test scores, and grade retention), controlling for relevant factors. Earlier acquisition of English predicted better middle school outcomes and a lower likelihood of being retained in middle school. Some relations between the timing of English acquisition and outcomes were stronger for students not experiencing poverty. Implications for the education of DLL students in the U.S. and future research are discussed.

ABSTRACT Bilingualtek (BT) is a cultural-linguistically responsive, synergetic science-language instructional approach which was developed, implemented, and evaluated in collaboration with Head Start teachers. BT addresses significant needs to improve science education for young children while supporting monolingual teachers in science instruction with preschool age dual language learners (DLLs). This manuscript examines teachers’ experiences implementing BT as well as professional learning strategies and support processes used during the implementation of BT over 2 years of the project. Using multiple methods, qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 19 Head Start lead and assistant teachers. The exploratory findings reported here are set within the context of participating teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about science and science teaching. Quantitative data indicate variability among teachers in their attitudes and beliefs about science learning, cultural competence, and teaching of DLLs. The qualitative data focused on implementation and professional learning, suggest that teachers were generally positive about implementing BT strategies in their classroom while noting challenges with English academic language for the DLLs as well as adding engaging science activities to the daily schedule. The study findings provide foundational insight for the discussion of strategies to engage and facilitate cultural-linguistically responsive science instructional practices with DLLs.

Pediatricians are the first professionals to provide guidance about language development to families with young children and referrals for those who may have a language or communication disorder. One-quarter of children in the United States are dual language learners (DLLs), yet there is little information about pediatrician's readiness to provide culturally and linguistically responsive care for these children. This pilot study sought to examine pediatricians' knowledge of bilingual language development and its relation to the provision of language and literacy promotion and developmental surveillance for Latine DLLs. Sixty-seven pediatricians at two academic pediatric clinics completed a survey asking about their knowledge about bilingual language development, Spanish proficiency, and provision of culturally effective health care to Latine DLLs. Analyses examined mean levels of these variables as well as relationships between knowledge, proficiency, and practices. On average, pediatricians' responses to the knowledge-based questions agreed with the evidence 69% of the time. Only 29% of pediatricians said they felt comfortable counseling Latine parents on bilingual language development, and 75% indicated they had difficulty recognizing signs of a language or communication disorders in Latine children from Spanish-speaking homes. Multiple regressions showed that pediatricians with higher Spanish proficiency and those with greater knowledge of bilingual language development provided more culturally and linguistically responsive care to Latine DLLs. We identified significant gaps in pediatricians' knowledge about bilingual language development that were associated with their practice patterns. Results highlight the need for incorporating training about bilingual language development into pediatric education and increasing the number of providers that speak languages other than English. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.29954468.

ABSTRACT This qualitative study investigates how Korean Dual Language Programs (KDLPs) are represented on school websites. Using critical content analysis and a critical multilingual framework, we examined the websites of 12 public elementary schools in Southern California that offer a KDLP. Our findings suggest an inconsistent commitment to bilingualism/biliteracy centering English over Korean text. Many websites feature vibrant representations of biculturalism with students of diverse backgrounds, but they participate in a limited number of cultural activities. Additionally, we observed little evidence of the goal of fostering critical consciousness, but they are nonetheless important steps toward that goal. We aim to contribute to the promotion of equitable and inclusive educational practices for multilingual learners.

Academic outcomes of English learners in monolingual and dual language programs

Societal language and social skills in preschool dual language learners

ABSTRACT This qualitative study examined how one first-grade dual language teacher built on Latiné emergent bilingual students’ language development during interactive readalouds. Through qualitative analysis, themes emerged in recognizing Spanish heterogeneity. The study highlights how children drew from their linguistic and cultural repertoires to mediate their learning. Findings revealed how the teacher recognized children’s linguistic repertoires and supported them in developing Spanish varieties. This study highlights translanguaging practices when converging language varieties exist in a classroom. Implications for practicing teachers in bilingual education classrooms are provided for language development and negotiating the presence of various repertoires.

ABSTRACT With globalisation on the rise, an increasing number of young children are learning two or more languages at a young age. Understanding the home literacy environment of dual language learners (DLLs) is crucial, as early experiences shape language development and heritage language maintenance. This study examined language input and use in the homes of Korean-English DLLs aged 2–6 in the United States. Using snowball sampling, 97 parents completed a self-report questionnaire on the quantity and quality of language input and their children's language use. Descriptive, multivariate, and logistic regression analyses were used to examine the relations between these variables and child and family background, as well as children’s dominant language. Results showed children received more Korean input through reading and informal activities, while formal learning favoured English. Age and family income were linked to greater input and use of both languages, particularly English. Older child age increased the likelihood of English dominance, while frequent teaching of the Korean alphabet supported Korean dominance. These findings highlight the importance of active Korean use at home in reducing language shift and supporting bilingual development and heritage language maintenance in second-generation children.

Needs assessment tools may guide optimization of clinical services to be more patient-centered. As needs of patients living with and beyond colorectal cancer (CRC) may also be influenced by socio-cultural backgrounds and healthcare ecosystems, we developed and validated a needs assessment questionnaire for CRC in a multi-ethnic, low-and middle-income setting. The study methodology was guided by the COSMIN checklist. Items generation was based on findings from independent qualitative inquiries with patients, input from cancer stakeholders, and literature review. Following translation into Malay language, content and face validation were undertaken. The tool was administered to 300 individuals living with and beyond CRC. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. Criterion validity was assessed using EORTC QLQ-C30 and QLQ-CR29 questionnaires. The 48-item bilingual needs assessment tool for colorectal cancer (NeAT-CC) encompassed six domains of needs, namely (i) diagnosis, (ii) psychosocial and information, (iii) healthcare, (iv) practical and living with cancer, (v) financial and (vi) employment. Cronbach's alpha was above 0.70 for all domains, indicating good internal consistency. CFA also demonstrated acceptable convergent and divergent validity with composite reliability >0.70 and Heterotrait-Monotrait index <0.90 for all constructs. Criterion validity was established given the significant correlation with quality of life. The NeAT-CC was easily understandable, took 15-20 minutes for completion and may be self-administered. Utilization of NeAT-CC may facilitate optimization of supportive and survivorship care services following CRC in local settings. The tool has wider potential for adaptation in other multi-ethnic and/or low and middle-income settings.

BackgroundNeeds assessment tools may guide optimization of clinical services to be more patient-centered. As needs of patients living with and beyond colorectal cancer (CRC) may also be influenced by socio-cultural backgrounds and healthcare ecosystems, we developed and validated a needs assessment questionnaire for CRC in a multi-ethnic, low-and middle-income setting.MethodsThe study methodology was guided by the COSMIN checklist. Items generation was based on findings from independent qualitative inquiries with patients, input from cancer stakeholders, and literature review. Following translation into Malay language, content and face validation were undertaken. The tool was administered to 300 individuals living with and beyond CRC. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. Criterion validity was assessed using EORTC QLQ-C30 and QLQ-CR29 questionnaires.ResultsThe 48-item bilingual needs assessment tool for colorectal cancer (NeAT-CC) encompassed six domains of needs, namely (i) diagnosis, (ii) psychosocial and information, (iii) healthcare, (iv) practical and living with cancer, (v) financial and (vi) employment. Cronbach’s alpha was above 0.70 for all domains, indicating good internal consistency. CFA also demonstrated acceptable convergent and divergent validity with composite reliability >0.70 and Heterotrait–Monotrait index <0.90 for all constructs. Criterion validity was established given the significant correlation with quality of life. The NeAT-CC was easily understandable, took 15–20 minutes for completion and may be self-administered.ConclusionsUtilization of NeAT-CC may facilitate optimization of supportive and survivorship care services following CRC in local settings. The tool has wider potential for adaptation in other multi-ethnic and/or low and middle-income settings.

ABSTRACT Dual Language (DL) programs prioritize the intertwined development of linguistic and cultural competencies, emphasizing bilingualism/biliteracy, academic success, and sociocultural competence. However, existing scholarship highlights ambiguities surrounding the definition of sociocultural competence and its practical application, particularly how educators’ conceptualizations of language and culture influence their efforts to cultivate this competence. This study analyzes the narratives of two DL teachers, examining their perceptions of linguistic and cultural dynamics within educational contexts. Employing critical discourse analysis, findings reveal how participants’ understandings of the role of language and culture inform their pedagogical practices, contributing valuable insights for advancing sociocultural competence in DL programs.

ABSTRACT While English is the most commonly used language in Aotearoa New Zealand, it is a multilingual nation with two languages recognised as official: te reo Māori (the Māori language) and New Zealand Sign Language. The English language is dominant in children’s literature published in Aotearoa New Zealand, but since the 1980s there has been an increase in the number of picturebooks featuring two languages, te reo Māori and English. Previous work has explored how representations of te reo Māori and English in pukapuka pikitia reorua (dual language picturebooks) in Aotearoa reflect changing attitudes towards the two languages. In this article, we focus particularly on Brianne Te Paa and Story Hemi-Morehouse’s picturebook How my Koro became a Star. Originally written in te reo Māori, this multi-award winning picturebook is located at the beginning of Matariki, the Māori New Year celebration. In a move away from the linguistic analysis of te reo Māori being ‘borrowed’ by English, we consider how storytellers like Te Paa weave Māori language together with English in a translingual publication, supporting reader comprehension of Māori vocabulary and cultural meanings through embedded illustrations and explanations, inviting the curious reader to learn beyond the story.

Utilizing a framework of transformational and advocacy leadership, this study explores educator perspectives after completing a master’s program in dual language education and teacher leadership. Also examined are the perspectives of principals whose educators completed the program. This mixed-methods study draws from graduate surveys, principal surveys, and principal interviews from four cohorts of graduates across six districts serving large populations of emergent bilinguals. Findings highlight that graduates perceived that the master’s program helped them develop in the domains of advocacy, adult, culture, and instructional leadership. Principals perceived development of their educators in all domains, underscoring advocacy and instructional leadership. This study contributes to research on teacher leadership and the leaders serving in official and unofficial roles who impact the teaching and learning of emergent bilinguals.

ABSTRACT The Coronavirus (COVID19) pandemic has had a national impact on our children’s learning amidst and beyond the COVID19 era. The current study seeks to better understand mask use and wearing behaviors and their impact on young dual language learners (DLLs) students’ adherence to and attitudes toward masks. In addition, we seek to determine the extent to which mask use impacts DLL children’s bilingual language development. The research questions guiding the current study are as follows: (RQ1) What is children’s knowledge about and attitudes toward mask use? (RQ2) Do children adhere to wearing masks in and outside of school? (RQ3) What are the relationships between their mask-wearing knowledge and attitude toward masks and their actual mask use? and (RQ4) What are the relationships between children’s mask use and their bilingual language outcomes? Participants included 202 Spanish-English Latina/o DLL children in Grades 1st (N = 76), 3rd (N = 88), and 5th (N = 38) from elementary schools in the Southwestern United States. Results showed that compared to DLLs in upper elementary grades, younger DLLs needed additional support to understand the importance of mask use and adherence to wearing masks. The current study demonstrated that mask use did not negatively impact DLLs’ language development.

This study investigated whether features of teacher talk predicted children’s oral language development in diverse early childhood education and care settings, and whether the potential effects differed due to children’s age or dual language learner (DLL) status. The study included 203 classrooms with 734 children aged between 25 and 59 months at onset, 56.6% of whom were DLLs. Teacher talk during small-group shared readings was recorded in the fall and coded for question types (advanced and referential wh-questions) and linguistic features (vocabulary quantity, vocabulary diversity, and utterance length), and children’s vocabulary and syntactic comprehension were assessed in the fall and spring. Our findings suggest that teachers’ advanced wh-questions can significantly promote children’s development of syntactic comprehension, regardless of their age and DLL status. Furthermore, teachers’ utterance length and diverse vocabulary use predicted children’s development of syntactic comprehension, and teacher’s diverse vocabulary use predicted children’s vocabulary development, with some of these relationships being moderated by children’s age and DLL status. These findings emphasize the importance of teachers employing strategies that elicit children’s participation and activate thinking from a young age and irrespective of their language background.

ABSTRACT This study investigates institutional selectivity in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) provision across secondary schools in the Flemish Community of Belgium (N = 947). By employing a multinomial lens, this paper explores how pupils’ socioeconomic status (SES), schools’ linguistic diversity, and size predict the adoption of exclusive English CLIL, exclusive French CLIL, combined English and French CLIL, or no CLIL trajectory. Findings reveal that SES functions as a silent engine, with schools serving students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds less likely to offer any CLIL. Linguistic diversity significantly influenced CLIL type, as schools with a high proportion of pupils from multilingual backgrounds were more inclined toward dual language tracks (English and French) or opted out of CLIL entirely, demonstrating an all-or-nothing dynamic dependent on SES contexts. Furthermore, institutional capacity emerged as a crucial determinant, with larger schools predominantly adopting exclusive English CLIL tracks. This result reflects resource-related implementation, as Flemish secondary schools are required to offer parallel non-CLIL tracks, a condition that only schools with substantial enrolment can satisfy. Overall, the findings of this study highlight that CLIL provision is profoundly shaped by institutional and socioeconomic factors, emphasising the need for nuanced policy interventions addressing language choice and equitable access.

This study aims to characterize Spanish-English emergent bilingual (EB) children's language experiences and to examine how these experiences contribute to their bilingual development over a 2-year period. All EB children were enrolled in dual language immersion (DLI) programs. This setting provides a unique opportunity to explore how bilingual language experiences shape bilingual language development across time. Fifty-seven Spanish-English EB children participated in the study. Bilingual language skills were assessed at two time points: Time 1 (2019) and Time 2 (2021). Participants were in Grade 1 or 3 at Time 1 (Mage = 91.4 months, SD = 12.37) and Grade 3 or 5 at Time 2 (Mage = 113.43 months; SD = 14.07), respectively. Children were assessed on phonological awareness, morphological awareness, vocabulary, and syntactic awareness in both English and Spanish. Language experience was measured through child- and teacher-reported surveys. Over time, teacher-reported Spanish experience at school increased and English experience decreased, while child-reported English experience at home remained stable. Except for Spanish vocabulary, significant gains were found for all language measures, indicating continuous development trajectories. Teacher-reported English experience at Time 1 positively predicted English vocabulary gains. Time 2 teacher-reported Spanish experience and child-reported English experience negatively predicted Spanish vocabulary growth, suggesting possible trade-offs. This study highlights the importance of balanced, high-quality bilingual experience across home and school. DLI programs support growth in multiple language domains, though Spanish expressive vocabulary may need targeted support. Findings have educational and clinical implications for assessment, early intervention, and promoting heritage language use without compromising English-language development.

ABSTRACT This study explores how high-stakes standardized assessments and accountability measures, driven by standards-based reforms, shape language policy and reinforce inequalities in a dual language bilingual education (DLBE) program in a Midwestern state. Grounded in critical language policy, it examines how federal education policy’s emphasis on standards and high-stakes testing is interpreted locally to (re)produce unequal language status. Findings reveal that monoglossic ideologies embedded in neoliberal reforms marginalize Spanish and its speakers, creating a double inequity for emergent bilinguals and educators. The study calls for critical consciousness and the development of bilingual assessments and heteroglossic approaches to advance DLBE program goals.

The development of semantic integration in bilingual toddlers measured by N400.

This study examines the relationship between English Learner (EL) classification, language program type, and peer victimization using U.S. nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Class of 2011. Leveraging a sample of 9,562 children, this study investigates whether dual language programs serve as a protective factor against peer victimization compared to English-only programs. Participation in dual language programs reduces peer victimization among ELs relative to those in English-only programs. These results highlight the importance of expanding access to linguistically inclusive programs that affirm students’ home languages and fostering school environments that support holistic development for ELs.