Drinking Tap Water Research Articles

Identification of mocroorganism drinking tap water resistant sodium hypochlorite

The morphological and cultural characteristics of the three dominant bacterial cultures isolated from drinking tap water and water samples at different stages of post-treatment on the installation of water treatment companies of special drinks were studied. From the sequence of the 16S rRNA gene identified the following types of bacteria: Bacillus nanhaiensis, Brevibacterium frigoritolerans and Lysinibacillus fusiformis. It was found that the most resistant to chlorine appeared Lysinibacillus fusiformis. Its resistance to sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) at concentrations of 1.4; 3; 5; and 7 mg / l varies from 1 - 98%, while the duration of exposure of from 5 to 60 minutes, while the remaining two isolates Brevibacterium and Bacillus nanhaiensis frigoritolerans demonstrated lower survival in the presence of NaClO (0 - 16%). A parallel between the morphological type selected bacterial isolates, their ability to form a pellicle at the interface liquid / air and resistant to chlorine is drawn. This resistance to a sufficiently high concentration of sodium hypochlorite may develop as a result of natural selection through random mutation and / or due to the effect of the disinfectant, which can induce the occurrence of acquired resistance.

Trace lithium is inversely associated with male suicide after adjustment of climatic factors

BackgroundPreviously, we showed the inverse association between lithium in drinking water and male suicide in Kyushu Island. The narrow variation in meteorological factors of Kyushu Island and a considerable amount of evidence regarding the role of the factors on suicide provoked the necessities of adjusting the association by the wide variation in sunshine, temperature, rain fall, and snow fall. MethodsTo keep the wide variation in meteorological factors, we combined the data of Kyushu (the southernmost city is Itoman, 26°) and Hokkaido (the northernmost city is Wakkanai, 45°). Multiple regression analyses were used to predict suicide SMRs (total, male and female) by lithium levels in drinking water and meteorological factors. ResultsAfter adjustment of meteorological factors, lithium levels were significantly and inversely associated with male suicide SMRs, but not with total or female suicide SMRs, across the 153 cities of Hokkaido and Kyushu Islands. Moreover, annual total sunshine and annual mean temperature were significantly and inversely associated with male suicide SMRs whereas annual total rainfall was significantly and directly associated with male suicide SMRs. LimitationsThe limitations of the present study include the lack of data relevant to lithium levels in food and the proportion of the population who drank tap water and their consumption habits. ConclusionsThe present findings suggest that trace lithium is inversely associated with male but not female suicide after adjustment of meteorological factors.

Impact of electrically activated water fractions on solubility of meat proteins

The article examines and discusses the influence of electrically activated water on the proteins of muscle tissue. The aim of the study is to improve the solubility of proteins in muscle tissue to achieve greater yields and improve their quality through the use of electrically activated water fractions. The results of the studies of solubility change of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins are given. It is established the solubility level of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins in the presence of a catholyte, anolyte and drinking tap water (control). The efficiency of using electrically activated water fractions to improve the solubility of proteins in muscle tissue is shown. It is determined the dependence of the water-holding and fat-holding capacity, emulsifying capacity and emulsion stability on the protein solubility under the influence of the electrically activated water fractions. The results can be used in the production technology of emulsified sausage.

Survey of public attitiude towards bottled and tap water quality in the UAE

<div> <p>The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is one of the leading countries in the per capita bottled water consumption. This seems to be in controversy with adherences of local water authorities to stringent municipal water standards. A public survey (n= 891) was conducted to ascertain the perception of people in the country regarding bottled and tap water quality. The survey form was formulated based on the stated preference approach and was furnished in both Arabic and English languages. Some questions in the survey form require rating the quality of tap water and identifying the type of water the respondent drinks. For respondents who usually drink bottled water, they were asked to choose the reason(s) why they usually drink bottled water. Those who drink tap water more often were similarly asked to choose the reason(s) why they prefer tap water to bottled water. The study revealed that a large fraction of the UAE residents classify the quality of tap water as either good or excellent, yet many of them drink bottled water. This could be attributed in part to the high standard of living where the cost of bottled water is considered by the majority of the respondents as affordable. Other influential factors include the belief that bottled water has a better taste and concerns about tap water contamination. The latter may stem from the perception that water is not sufficiently treated or contamination is induced into the water from the distribution system or the in-house storage tanks. The study shows that more people in the UAE will drink tap water if relevant authorities provide information about tap water quality and if regular inspections and cleaning of the in-house storage tanks is conducted.</p> </div> <p> </p>

Molecular profiling of culturable bacteria from portable drinking water filtration systems and tap water in three cities of Metro Manila, Philippines

Many consumers drink filtered water from portable filtration system or directly from tap water. However, microbial community composition in portable drinking water filtration systems has not yet been investigated. This study determined the molecular profile of culturable bacteria in biofilms and filtered water from portable drinking water filtration systems and tap water in three key cities of Metro Manila, Philippines. A total of 97 isolates were obtained using different growth media and characterized based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. Most bacteria were isolated from biofilms, followed by filtered water and the least from tap water. Many isolates were affiliated with Proteobacteria (α, β, and γ), Actinobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteriodetes; some had no matches or low affiliations in data bank. Many isolates were associated with bacteria that were part of normal drinking water flora. Some were affiliated with opportunistic bacterial pathogens, soil bacteria and activated sludge bacteria. The presence of soil and opportunistic bacteria may pose health risks when immunocompromised consumers directly drink the tap water. Some isolates had very low percentage homology with bacterial affiliates or without matches in the data bank suggesting different identities or novelty of the isolates. Further studies are needed for different portable filtration systems available in the market, drinking water quality status of other areas and functions of the isolated bacteria. This study is the first report on the use of potato dextrose agar for isolation of bacteria from water environment. It is also the first report on molecular profiling of culturable bacteria in biofilms and filtered water in portable drinking water filtration systems.

Chlorinated Water Modulates the Development of Colorectal Tumors with Chromosomal Instability and Gut Microbiota in Apc-Deficient Mice.

The gastrointestinal tract is continuously exposed to a variety of chemicals and commensal bacteria. Recent studies have shown that changes in gut microbial populations caused by chlorine or other chemicals in the drinking water influence the development of human colorectal cancer, although the mechanism of tumorigenesis in the gut epithelium is obfuscated by the diversity of microflora and complexity of the tumor microenvironment. In this regard, mouse models that recapitulate human colorectal cancer are an invaluable tool. In this study, we used two conditional adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) knockout mouse models to investigate the effect of chlorinated water on tumorigenesis in the digestive tract. Mice with colon-specific carcinoma—caused by either chromosomal (CDX2P 9.5-NLS Cre;Apc+/flox, abbreviated to CPC;Apc) or microsatellite (CDX2P9.5-G19Cre;Apcflox/flox and CDX2P9.5-G22Cre;Apcflox/flox) instability, respectively—were administered chlorinated (10.0 mg/L chlorine) or tap (0.7 mg/L chlorine) water and evaluated for colon polyp formation. In CPC;Apc mice given chlorinated drinking water, tumors tended to develop in the colon, whereas in those that drank tap water, tumors were mostly observed in the small intestine. There was no difference in the rate of tumor formation of CDX2P9.5-G19Cre;Apcflox/flox and CDX2P9.5-G22Cre;Apcflox/flox mice consuming chlorinated as compared to tap water, suggesting that microsatellite instability in the Apc gene does not significantly affect tumorigenesis. Chlorinated water altered the enteric environment by reducing the fecal populations of the obligatory anaerobes Clostridium perfringens and C. difficile, as well as species belonging to the Atopobium cluster, including Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus sp., which was associated with colon tumorigenesis in CPC;Apc mice. These results suggest that differences in tumorigenesis among CPC;Apc mice consuming chlorinated versus tap water may be due to differences in gastrointestinal commensal populations.

The Effects of Lithium Administration on Oxidant/Antioxidant Status in Rats: Biochemical and Histomorphological Evaluations.

Present study was planned to determine possible dose-dependent effects of lithium (Li) on oxidant-antioxidant status and histomorphological changes in liver and kidney tissues. For this purpose, twenty-four Wistar male rats were equally divided into three groups: the rats in group I served as controls, drinking tap water without lithium. Groups II and III received 0.1 and 0.2 % lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) through their drinking water, respectively, for 30 days. At the end of the experimental period, lithium concentrations, levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were measured in considered tissues. Histomorphological study was also performed on liver and kidney tissues. Compared to controls, MDA was significantly higher but GSH level lower in groups II and III. SOD activity was higher in group III, but no difference was determined in group II in liver tissue. In kidney tissue, there was no difference determined in MDA and GSH levels between control and experimental groups but SOD activity in groups II and III was significantly higher. In histologic sections of both experimental liver and kidney tissues, specific degenerations were observed. The results of the present study show that treatment with lithium carbonate may result in liver and kidney tissue abnormalities and oxidative damage.

Sensitive Determination of Bromate in Water Samples by Capillary Electrophoresis Coupled with Electromembrane Extraction

Electromembrane extraction (EME) as a novel sample preparation technique was firstly applied for the purification and enrichment of bromate (BrO3 −) in drinking water prior to capillary zone electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CZE-C4D). BrO3 −, as the primary disinfection by-product of ozonation, could be well separated with the major inorganic anions coexisting in water samples using a 300 mmol L−1 acetic acid solution as the running buffer. Under the optimum conditions, the calibration curve showed good linearity (r 2 = 0.996), and the limit of detection was down to 0.12 ng mL−1 with the enrichment factor at 267. The relative standard deviation (RSD) values for peak area and migration time at a spiked concentration of 10 ng mL−1 of bromate were below 8.8 and 2.5 %, respectively. This proposed EME-CZE-C4D method has been successfully applied to analyze bottled drinking water and tap water samples with recoveries in the range of 85~98 %, providing an alternative to the determination of bromate in drinking water.

Paired-ion electrospray ionization – triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry for quantification of anionic surfactants in waters

A new paired ion electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry method for determination of anionic surfactants in water samples was developed. In this method, dicationic ion-pairing reagents were complexed with monoanionic analytes to facilitate analyte detection in positive mode electrospray ionization – mass spectrometry. Single ion monitoring and selected reaction monitoring on a triple quadrupole instrument were performed and compared. Four dicationic reagents were tested for the determination of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid (DBS), and stearic acid (SA), among other common anions. The obtained limits of detection were compared with those from previous literature. Solid phase extraction using a C18 cartridge was performed in order to eliminate matrix interferences. A literature review was compiled for the methods published between 2010 and 2015 for determination of anionic surfactants. The optimized method was more sensitive than previously developed methods with LOD values of 2.35, 35.4, 37.0, 1.68, and 0.675pg for SDS, SA, DBS, PFOS, and PFOA, respectively. The developed method was effectively applied for the determination of anionic surfactants in different water samples such as bottled drinking water, cooking water, tap water, and wastewater.

Brain kinin B1 receptor is upregulated by the oxidative stress and its activation leads to stereotypic nociceptive behavior in insulin-resistant rats

Kinin B1 receptor (B1R) is virtually absent under physiological condition, yet it is highly expressed in models of diabetes mellitus. This study aims at determining: (1) whether B1R is induced in the brain of insulin-resistant rat through the oxidative stress; (2) the consequence of B1R activation on stereotypic nocifensive behavior; (3) the role of downstream putative mediators in B1R-induced behavioral activity. Sprague-Dawley rats were fed with 10% d-glucose in their drinking water or tap water (controls) for 4 or 12 weeks, combined either with a standard chow diet or a diet enriched with α-lipoic acid (1g/kg feed) for 4 weeks. The distribution and density of brain B1R binding sites were assessed by autoradiography. Behavioral activity evoked by i.c.v. injection of the B1R agonist Sar-[D-Phe8]-des-Arg9-BK (10μg) was measured before and after i.c.v. treatments with selective antagonists (10μg) for kinin B1 (R-715, SSR240612), tachykinin NK1 (RP-67580) and glutamate NMDA (DL-AP5) receptors or with the inhibitor of NOS (L-NNA). Results showed significant increases of B1R binding sites in various brain areas of glucose-fed rats that could be prevented by the diet containing α-lipoic acid. The B1R agonist elicited head scratching, grooming, sniffing, rearing, digging, licking, face washing, wet dog shake, teeth chattering and biting in glucose-fed rats, which were absent after treatment with α-lipoic acid or antagonists/inhibitors. Data suggest that kinin B1R is upregulated by the oxidative stress in the brain of insulin-resistant rats and its activation causes stereotypic nocifensive behavior through the release of substance P, glutamate and NO.

Species identification of water microorganisms resistant to chlorine compounds

Abstract—Morphological cultural features of three dominant bacterial cultures isolated from the drinking tap water and water samples taken at different stages of its post treatment at the water conditioning plant of special drink enterprise have been studied. The species composition of separated bacterial isolates was analyzed in terms of 16S rRNA gene sequences. The following bacterial species were identified: Bacillus nanhaiensis, Brevibacterium frigoritolerans, and Lysinibacillus fusiformis. Lysinibacillus fusiformis species was found to be the most resistant to chlorine. Its resistance to NaOCl at concentrations 1.4, 3, 5, and 7 mg/dm3 varies in the range 1–98% (with the exposure duration varying from 5 to 60 min), while the remaining two isolates, Bacillus nanhaiensis and Brevibacterium frigoritolerans, showed low survival rate in the presence of NaOCl (0–16%).

Assessment of arsenic levels in body samples and chronic exposure in people using water with a high concentration of arsenic: a field study in Kutahya.

This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of skin lesions, which is a health effect of chronic arsenic (As) exposure, and determine the hair/blood arsenic concentrations of people living in Kutahya villages who are using and drinking tap water with a high concentration of arsenic. A total of 303 people were included in the present cross-sectional study. A prepared questionnaire form was used to collect the participants' information and environmental history. Skin examination was performed on all participants. Hair, blood and water samples were analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The cumulative arsenic index (CAI) was calculated for all participants. Villages were divided into two groups according to the arsenic level (<20 μg/L, Group I; >20 μg/L, Group II) in their water. The prevalence of skin lesions, hair and blood arsenic level, and CAI were found to be higher in the Group II participants. There was a positive association between body arsenic levels and CAI in the participants of each group. The number of skin lesions and arsenic concentrations in body samples were found to increase with the water arsenic level and exposure time. We hope that sharing this study's results with local administrators will help accelerate the rehabilitation of water sources in Kutahya.

Magnetic accumulation and extraction of Cd(II), Hg(II) and Pb(II) by a novel nano-Fe3O4-coated-dioctylphthalate-immobilized-hydroxylamine

A magnetic nano-sorbent was synthesized via direct surface impregnation of dioctyl phthalate (Dop) on magnetic nano-iron oxide (nano-Fe3O4) for the formation of (nano-Fe3O4-Dop). The produced material was further functionalized with nitrogen and oxygen donor atoms by surface immobilization of hydroxylamine for the formation of a novel magnetic nano-sorbent (nano-Fe3O4-Dop-HA). This was identified using SEM, HR-TEM, TGA, FT-IR and surface area determination. The average particle size was found in the range of 5–16 nm based on the HR-TEM analysis. The incorporated selectivity was examined for removal of Cd(II), Hg(II) and Pb(II) from aqueous solutions by the static and dynamic techniques. Nano-Fe3O4-Dop-HA was identified by high Hg(II) uptake capacity values (1433.3–1633.3μmolg−1 in pH 1.0–7.0) compared to Cd(II) and Pb(II). The contributions of pH, contact time and nano-sorbent dosage, initial metal ion concentration and interfering ions on the magnetic solid phase extraction by nano-Fe3O4-Dop-HA were also studied and optimized. The potential applications of nano-Fe3O4-Dop-HA for removal of Cd(II), Hg(II) and Pb(II) from industrial wastewater, sea water and drinking tap water samples were successfully accomplished using a multistage micro-column technique.

An outbreak of hepatitis E in an urban area of Bangladesh.

We investigated an outbreak of jaundice in urban Bangladesh in 2010 to examine the cause and risk factors and assess the diagnostic utility of commercial assays. We classified municipal residents reporting jaundice during the preceding 4 weeks as probable hepatitis E cases and their neighbours without jaundice in the previous 6 months as probable controls. We tested the sera collected from probable cases and probable controls for IgM anti-hepatitis E virus (HEV), and the IgM-negative sera for IgG anti-HEV using a commercial assay locally. We retested the IgM-positive sera for both IgM and IgG anti-HEV using another assay at the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), USA. Probable cases positive for IgM anti-HEV were confirmed cases; probable controls negative for both IgM and IgG anti-HEV were confirmed controls. We explored the local water supply and sanitation infrastructure and tested for bacterial concentration of water samples. Probable cases were more likely than probable controls to drink tap water (adjusted odds ratio: 3.4; 95% CI: 1.2-9.2). Fifty-eight percentage (36/62) of the case sera were IgM anti-HEV positive; and 75% of the IgM-positive samples were confirmed positive on retesting with another assay at CDC. Compared to confirmed controls, cases confirmed using either or both assays also identified drinking tap water as the risk factor. Two tap water samples had detectable thermotolerant coliforms. Research exploring decentralized water treatment technologies for sustainable safe water might prevent HEV transmission in resource-poor cities. Detection of serological markers in a majority of probable cases implied that available diagnostic assays could adequately identify HEV infection during outbreaks.

Perspectives of Maryland adults regarding caries prevention.

We obtained in-depth information from low-income parents and caregivers of young children about their knowledge and understanding of and practices related to the prevention and control of dental caries (tooth decay). In 2010, we conducted 4 focus groups in Maryland communities with low-income, English-speaking parents and caregivers who had at least 1 child aged 6 years or younger or who were pregnant. We developed a focus group guide based on findings of a previous statewide random telephone survey of adults with young children. Most participants had limited understanding of and extensive misinformation about how to prevent dental caries. They were confused about the use of juice and its impact on their child's teeth and had limited understanding of the use of fluorides to prevent caries. Most did not drink tap water and did not give it to their children; rather, they used bottled water. These results and those of the statewide telephone survey strongly suggest the need for educational interventions designed for those with limited levels of education.

Characteristics of water consumption by the population of industrial city.

The article presents the characteristics of water consumption by population of a modern industrial city. Results of the study show that the problem of drinking tap water is relevant for the residents of the industrial city. Methods of drinking tap water purification used by population of the industrial city at home in order to improve its quality were identified. It is found that a certain part of the population (5.7%), mostly middle-aged persons with secondary education, consume tap water without pre-treatment or are limited to boiling it before use (6.3%). Considerable part of the population of the industrial city for drinking and cooking every day uses additionaly purified water. Of them, 27.6% prefer additionaly purified pre-packed water, 16.1% of respondents use drinking water from water spill points. The results of the survey indicate that 4.5% of respondents for purification of tap water use intrahouse filters, 20.3% - local (domestic) filters.

Preeclampsia and preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension in Buenos Aires

Preeclampsia and preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension in Buenos Aires

Selective colorimetric sensors based on the monitoring of an unmodified silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) reduction for a simple and rapid determination of mercury

In this work, selective colorimetric sensors for simple and rapid detection of Hg(II) ions based on the monitoring of an unmodified silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) reduction were developed. The average diameter of synthesized AgNPs was 8.3±1.4nm which was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The abrupt change in absorbance of the unmodified AgNPs was observed which progressively decreased and slightly shifted to the blue wavelength as the concentration of Hg(II) increased, indicating the oxidation of Ag(0) to Ag(I) occurred. It appears that the AgNPs were oxidized by Hg(II), resulting in disintegration of the AgNPs into smaller particles as well as mediating the reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(0) adsorbed onto the surface of AgNPs. The adsorption of Hg(0) resulted in the lack of sufficient charges on AgNPs surfaces due to the decrease in the surface coverage of negatively charged citrate molecules, which then leaded to enlargement of AgNPs. The calibration curve of this technique was demonstrated from 0.5 to 7ppm (r2=0.995), the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.06ppm (SDblank/slope of calibration curve) with the precision (RSD, n=4) of 3.24–4.53. Interestingly, the results show a significant enhance in the Hg(II) analytical sensitivity when Cu(II) is doped onto the unmodified AgNPs, which improves the quantitative detection limit to 0.008ppm. In addition, greater selectivity toward Hg(II) compared with the other metal ions tested was observed. Furthermore, the percentage recoveries of spiked drinking water, tap water and SRM1641d (mercury in water) were in acceptable range with a good precision (RSD) which were in agreement with the values obtained from graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer (GFAAS). The technique proposed in this study provides a rapid, simple, sensitive and selective detection method for Hg(II) in water samples.

Serum Aluminum Level and Its Relation with Parathyroid Hormone and Anemia in Children on Maintenance Hemodialysis

Aim: Renal excretion of aluminum is impaired in patients with chronic kidney disease, thereby increasing the risk of toxicity. Our aims were to determine the serum aluminum level in children on regular haemodialysis and to assess the effect of aluminum on PTH and blood parameters. Methodology: This is a case control study was done on 120 children, a group of 60 cases on regular hemodialysis, their ages ranged from 3 to 16 year. They were 27 males (45%) and 33 females (55%) they were selected from the hemodialysis unit and outpatient clinic of Al-Zahraa hospital, AL-Azhar University during the period from January 2014 to September 2014. The studied cases were divided into two groups according to the serum aluminum level; group A 50 μg/L. Another group of 60 apparently healthy children with matched age and sex with the patient group served as a control. All subjects underwent thorough history taking, clinical examination and the following investigations: complete blood count, blood urea, serum creatinine, Original Research Article Hegazy et al.; BJMMR, 7(6): 494-502, 2015; Article no.BJMMR.2015.355 495 total serum calcium, serum phosphorus, serum aluminum, ferritin, PTH and aluminum level of drinking water and water for dialysis. Results: In this study serum aluminum level was significantly higher in cases compared with controls, it was (60±20 μg/L) and (20±10 μg/L) respectively (P=.000). Also we found serum PTH was significantly higher while serum calcium was significantly lower in cases compared to controls particularly in children whose aluminum >50 μg/L. We found a significant positive correlation between serum aluminum levels with PTH (r=.50, P=.001). Also our study reported that the aluminum level in both tap water (for drinking) and water from the dialysis unit their levels were 300 μg/L and 1 μg/L respectively. Conclusion: Drinking water is the main source of high aluminum level in our study and its overload is still a serious health problem in hemodialysis children. So aluminum should be diminished from drinking water to reach the permissible limit; routine monitoring of aluminum level and new modalities of hemodialysis is recommended.

Managing Hepatitis Outbreak in Biratnagar Nepal

This is a review article on jaundice outbreak occurred in <i>Biratnagar</i> during April-July 2014. The study reviewed the reports on hepatitis outbreak presented by District Public Health Officer Morang during a seminar organized by Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC), District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC) meetings and HMIS (Health Management Information System) database. District Public Health Office (DPHO) recorded 2,789 Jaundice patients in Morang district including <i>Biratnagar</i> city. Most of the patients (80.67%) recorded from <i>Biratnagar</i>. In the outbreak sex ratio of female to male was 0.56:1. Hepatitis infection was highest among 15-29 age groups and noticed remarkable among 15 to 54 years age groups. District Disaster Management Committee declared the outbreak in <i>Biratnagar</i> on April 28 when 95 jaundice patients recorded in the hospitals. The number reached at peak level 176 patients on May 6 and the trend came downward to normal level on July 8, 2014. Total 12 deaths recorded in the outbreak. Of them 8 deaths recorded from <i>Biratnagar</i>, 3 deaths from <i>Morang</i> district and 1 death from <i>Saptari</i> district. In <i>Biratnagar</i> ward No. 11 listed 5 deaths, ward No. 8 listed 2 deaths and ward No. 3 listed 1 death. Case fatality rate in the <i>Biratnagar</i> outbreak calculated as 0.43%. The causes of hepatitis infection were hepatitis viruses E and A. The transmission of infection in <i>Biratnagar</i> was due to sewage contamination through leaking pipes in water distribution. The level of community awareness on taking safe water observed in the <i>Biratnagar</i>. Before the outbreak, people used to drink tap water without treatment. After the outbreak, people changed their behavior to boil or filter water to drink in houses. Many people started to purchase mineral water in jars and bottles from the market. However, government water supply system in <i>Biratnagar</i> is poor which demands an upgrade to meet WHO standard of drinking water.