Drainage Basin Shape Research Articles

Neotectonic landforms of the Neoproterozoic basement of Southeastern Brazil: The case of the north border of the São Paulo Basin

Recent studies have demonstrated that the current tectonics activity plays an important role also in intraplate setting, such as in the Brazilian territory as a whole. The Continental Rift of Southeastern Brazil, which comprises the Neoproterozoic basement and some Paleogene basins (e.g. Taubaté, São Paulo, and Curitiba basins), is one of the most important features affected by Neotectonics, the tectonic regime acting since Neogene. However, information about the effects of the current tectonic regime on the rift surrounding areas is still missing. In this way, the objective of this research is to evaluate the possible effects of Neotectonics on the landform of the Neoproterozoic basement, close to the São Paulo sedimentary basin. In order to achieve this objective, general descriptive characteristics of the drainage system were analyzed, such as: network pattern, drainage and hydrographic densities, junction angles, trophy, and anomalies. These data were compared with the aeromagnetic data and the results of the Stream Length-Gradient (SL), Asymmetry Factor (AF), and Drainage Basin Shape (BS) indexes of the main rivers. In the field, 1330 measurements of tectonic features were surveyed in 122 outcrops. The paleostress orientations were calculated by means of fault and fracture inversions by Daisy3 software. In addition, Geologic-geomorphological Maps (1:25,000) of 3 key areas were prepared. The results suggest that tectonic structures have influenced the general arrangement of hills, ridges, and floodplains, as well as the general characteristics of the drainage system, responsible for the dissection of landforms. Recent deformations indicate Neotectonic activity causing tilting of blocks and channel migration, and formation of escarpments, triangular facets, abandoned meanders, fluvial terraces, knickpoints, and elbows. On the other hand, the field data suggest that the most of faults are related to the Pre Cenozoic tectonics. In this way, Neotectonics is not the principal structural element on the landform evolution of the study area, but it has an important role on the relief formation of some regions.

Assessment of relative tectonic activity in the Lar region, Zagros Fold‐Thrust Belt, SW Iran: Insights from geomorphometric analysis

AbstractThe Zagros Fold‐Thrust Belt is a tectonically active region within the Alpine‐Himalayan orogenic system resulting from ongoing convergence between Afro‐Arabian and Central Iranian plates. The presence of various geomorphic features in this region provides an ideal natural case for identifying deformed landforms resulting from active tectonics. The relative tectonic activity along the Lar and Didehban faults within the Zagros Fold‐Thrust Belt, SW Iran was evaluated using six DEM‐derived geomorphic indices: the stream‐gradient index (SL), drainage basin asymmetry (AF), hypsometric integral (HI), valley floor width‐valley height ratio (Vf), drainage basin shape (Bs), and mountain‐front sinuosity (Smf). These indices were combined to yield the relative active tectonics index (Iat) that allows the variation of tectonic activity along the Lar and Didehban faults to be related to variations in rates of incision, tectonic tilting and uplift. This variable tectonic activity was characterized by different Iat values along the faults. The low to high relative tectonic activity (class 1: 1 < Iat < 1.5, class 2: 1.5 < Iat < 2, class 3: 2 < Iat < 2.5, class 4: 2.5 < Iat) correlates with variable geomorphic features along the faults. The results of this study present an approach for assessing the effects of active tectonics and also for sustainable land use planning over a large area.

Identification of geomorphic signatures of active tectonics in the Wadi Hagul Basin, Northwest Gulf of Suez, Egypt: insights from SRTM derived geomorphic indices and watershed analysis

The satellite data, include Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), Landsat-8 (OLI), Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), were processed and interpreted for creating an integrated geospatial map of the geomorphic indices (GI) of Wadi Hagul Basin (WHB). The present study is considered new, useful, and valuable in northwest of Gulf of Suez region to evaluate active tectonics using SRTM resulting drainage network and GI. Where fairly slight studies on active tectonics recognized on GI were prepared in the investigated area. The GI includes; Ratio of valley floor width to valley height (Vf), Transverse topographic symmetry factor (T), Stream length-gradient index (SL), Drainage basin shape (Bs), hypsometric integral (Hi), geomorphological landform and watershed analysis. Also, GI were integrated and combined with the seismic and structural lineaments intensities maps to create an integrated single index map. The morphotectonic geo-spatial distribution hazards map reveals that the high risky area is 82.75% of the total area, the moderate-risk area is 16.51%, and the low risky morph-tectonic area is 0.81%. Based on this map, it is necessary for planners and decision makers to extremely study attractive applicable action concerning the recommended mitigation measurements from this study to avoid any serious future problems in WHB and its surroundings areas.

GIS-Analysis for Active Tectonics Assessment of Wadi Al-Arish, Egypt

In this paper, we apply an effective method to evaluate relative tectonic activity by applying several morph-tectonic indices that are useful in evaluating topography and tectonics. These indices include stream length-gradient, asymmetric factor, hypsometric index, hypsometric curves, valley floor width to valley height ratio, drainage basin shape, and mountain front sinuosity. The study region of Wadi Al-Arish in northern Sinai Peninsula in northern Egypt is a natural laboratory to examine relative tectonic activity levels for calculating morpho-tectonic indices of several catchments and sub-catchments rather than an individual catchment. Northern Sinai, comprising the Waid Al-Arish area, is characterized by several large inversion anticline folds. The cumulative results extracted from morpho-tectonic indices ae presented as a new index, namely relative tectonic activity level (RTAL), which we classified into four levels: low, moderate, high, and very high relative tectonic activity. Therefore, the study region provides different levels of relative tectonic activity resulting from fault patterns affecting the northern Sinai inversion forms. The paper examines the concept that regions with various levels of tectonic activity are associated with specific values of RTAL.

Evaluation of Active Tectonic Features of Nandakini River Basin, Lesser Himalaya, India by Using Morphometric Indices: A GIS Approach

Tectonic geomorphology has been evidenced as an essential tool to define and measure recent tectonic deformation. The Nandakini River originates from Nanda Ghunti glacier at 6886 m in Lesser Himalaya. It covers about ~551 km<sup>2</sup> basin area, with a fourth-order stream. It confluences with the Alaknanda River near Nand Prayag (at elevation 852 m), Chamoli district of Uttarakhand. The drainage pattern is predominantly dendritic in the study area. The morphotectonic indices are measured to know the tectonic activity of the drainage basin. Morphometric indices reflecting hypsometric Integral is 1.07, indicating a deeper incision and a slight erosion. The basin elongation ratio is 0.17, suggesting that the area is tectonically active. The drainage basin asymmetric factor (44) suggest tilting. In addition, the drainage basin shape (3.27) indicates the basin is tectonically strong, the transverse topographic symmetry factor (0.31) indicates the asymmetric nature, the valley floor width to valley height ratio is 0.54 shows the deep, narrow valleys, and Active V-shaped incision. Stream longitudinal profile showing the area tectonically influenced. The Sinuosity Index of 1.12 suggests that low sinuous nature. The Stream length-gradient Index is 10.64, indicating high tectonic activity in valleys and basin areas. The transverse profile helps to understand the tilting of the basin. The Surface profile shows irregularity, and the linear trend of the profile shows the tilting of the basin. River carrying capacity with large boulder-size sediment indicates youth stage and tectonically active environment. The morphotectonic indices suggest that the drainage basin was affected by the regional structures and the present tectonics.

Revealing the geomorphic parameters of neotectonics based on geological and seismic data at Wadi Beda basin, NW Gulf of Suez, Egypt

The current study used remote sensing, GIS, and seismic data to determine the geological and morphometric parameters of the Wadi Beda Basin area, which is located in the northwestern part of the Gulf of Suez Province. The geomorphic parameters related with the development of neotectonics are deduced using the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), DEM-derived catchments, and drainage networks of the research area. The most important geomorphic parameters applied to the current study area are valley floor width to height ratio (Vf), stream length gradient index (Sl), transverse topographic symmetry index (T), hypsometric curve and integral (HI), and drainage basin shape (Bs). Based on the obtained geomorphic parameter results, the Wadi El-Noqra and Wadi Umm Athala basins exhibit moderate tectonic activity and moderate symmetry and are considered to be at their mature stage. The main basins of Wadi Umm Elda and Wadi Beda are moderately symmetrical and reflect the youth stage. However, the Bs index suggests that the Beda main basin has moderate tectonic activity, whereas Wadi Umm Elda has strong tectonic activity. By integrating the geomorphic and geological data, it is possible to determine that the majority of the study area (83.4%) is categorized by a moderate risk. Low-risk and high-risk zones, on the other hand, make up 11.1% and 5.5%, respectively, of the study area. The majority of the wadis in the Wadi Beda Main Basin are controlled by NW-trending faults, and the perturbation sites are concentrated there where these faults cross with E-W-trending faults, making them high-risk areas.

Neotectonics assessment using geomorphic indices: A study from the passive continental margin of India

ABSTRACT The response of landforms to tectonic deformative processes can be effectively understood by using geomorphic indices. The objective of this study is to evaluate the extent of neotectonic activities in the fourth-order sub-basins of a tropical river basin (Kallada River basin) in the Southern Granulite TerrainIndia. The extend of neotectonism was analyzed using geomorphic indices such as asymmetry factor, transverse topographic symmetry factor, hypsometric integral, stream-length gradient index, drainage basin shape index, ratio of valley floor to valley height, and mountain front sinuosity, with values varying from 0.3 to 41.20, 0.12 to 0.54, 0.13 to 0.69, 12.76 to 1036.49, 0.63 to 3.81, 0.05 to 6.04, and from 1.02 to 3.08, respectively. Further, the relative active tectonics index (IRAT) was derived from the geomorphic indices using GIS and the values vary from 1.67 to 3.0. Based on the degree of relative tectonic activity, Kallada River basin was classified into class 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to very high (1.0-1.5), high (1.5-2), moderate (2.0-2.5), and low (IRAT>2.5) values. The spatial distribution of different “IRAT” classes shows a gradational pattern from east to west, suggesting a gradual decrease in the neotectonic activity in the basin.

Drainage Basin Shape Indices to Understanding Channel Hydraulics

Drainage Basin Shape Indices to Understanding Channel Hydraulics

Tectonic and Climatic Control on Quaternary Exhumation in the Eastern Pamir Domes, Western China: Insights From Geomorphic Approaches

The Kongur Shan and Muztaghata massifs, bounded by the Kongur Shan extensional system (KES), represent tectonic and topographic anomalies in the eastern Pamir region. They are ideal examples to study how normal faulting and surface erosion influence Quaternary exhumation of the dome system. We apply multiple geomorphic parameters, including hypsometric integral, stream length-gradient index, drainage basin shape, drainage basin asymmetry and ratio of valley floor width to valley height, for the catchments on both sides of the range. We first evaluated the validity of various indices and chose three active tectonic-sensitive indices to establish a newly-integrated parameter (Iat) that is used to measure relative intensities of tectonic activity in active orogens. Results suggest stronger tectonic activity west of the domes along the Kongur Shan normal fault (KSF) and Muji dextral strike-slip fault, compared to the eastern side, along the Ghez and Kalagile faults. This first-order observation reflects tectonic control on the topographic development of the domal structure, consistent with eastward crustal tilting, attested by older thermochronology ages to the east. On the western flank of the range, stronger tectonic activity occurs mostly on the Muji fault, Kingata Tagh - Kongur Shan fault segment, as well as along the western and southern Muztaghata segments of the Kongur Shan fault. This is consistent with field investigations of Quaternary offsets of landforms, which suggest continuous activity of the Muji fault and KSF since the late Miocene. Average basin-wide erosion rates derived from stream power models are highest near the Kongur Shan dome, and gradually decrease southwards and northwards, in agreement with the spatial pattern of long-term exhumation rates in the footwall of the KSF obtained by low-temperature thermochronology data. Positive correlation between exhumation/erosion rates and extensional rates along the active faults located west of the domes indicates that extensional deformation likely plays a dominant role in controlling focused dome exhumation/erosion. However, considering peaked exhumation/erosion rates, stronger rock resistivity and steeper glacial landforms, attest to the important role of glacial buzz-saw in reshaping the recent dome’s landscape.

Active tectonics in the upper reaches of the Yellow River from Lagan Gorge to Liujia Gorge, northwestern China: Insights from geomorphic indices

The drainage basin of the upper reaches of the Yellow River from Lagan Gorge to Liujia Gorge, which spans Gonghe, Guide, Jianzha, Xunhua and Linxia basins, is located in the transition zone between the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and the Loess Plateau, northwestern China. Its evolution is controlled by the northeastward growth and uplift of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. To characterize and quantify the response of surface processes to deep geological mechanisms and to investigate the types of Late Cenozoic tectonic deformation in the study area and the relationship with large geological hazards, we analysed various geomorphological indicators, combined with field observations and the estimated incision rates and established a reasonable tectonic deformation model. The results demonstrate that the variations in the geomorphic indices are highly consistent with active tectonics. Higher hypsometric integral (HI), higher normalized stream length‐gradient index (SLK), higher basin asymmetry factor (AF), higher drainage basin shape (BS) and lower ratios of valley floor width to valley height (VF) indicate higher tectonic uplift rate in the Jianzha‐Xunhua basins compared to other basins where there are many giant landslides. These giant landslides occurring there can probably be correlated with the vigorous tectonic activity, thus generating a great significance in geological hazard prevention and control along the upper Yellow River.

Rainfall and drainage basin shape strongly control temporal and spatial variation of dissolved organic matter in a tropical lake

Rainfall and drainage basin shape strongly control temporal and spatial variation of dissolved organic matter in a tropical lake

Morpho-tectonic Assessment of the Abu-Dabbab Area, Eastern Desert, Egypt: Insights from Remote Sensing and Geospatial Analysis

The Abu-Dabbab area, located in the central part of the Egyptian Eastern Desert, is an active seismic region where micro-earthquakes (≈ML < 2.0) are recorded regularly. Earthquake epicenters are concentrated along an ENE–WSW trending pattern. In this study, we used morphological indexes, including the valley floor width-to-valley floor height ratio (Vf), mountain front sinuosity (Smf), the asymmetry factor index (Af), the drainage basin shape index (Bs), the stream length–gradient index (SL), hypsometric integral (Hi) water drainage systems, and a digital elevation model analysis, to identify the role of tectonics. These indexes were used to define the relative tectonic activity index (RTAI), which can be utilized to distinguish low (RTAI < 1.26), moderate (RTAI = 1.26–1.73), and high (RTAI > 1.73) tectonic activity signals all over the study area. Firstly, our results indicate low to medium tectonic activity and general anomaly patterns detected along the major tectonic zones of the study area. Secondly, based on most of the low to medium tectonic activity distributed in the study area and the detected anomalies, we discuss two potential drivers of the seismicity in the Abu-Dabbab area, which are fault-controlled and deep-rooted activities.

Assessment of relative tectonic activity using morphotectonic analysis in the Central High Atlas, Demnate Region, Morocco

This study focuses on the morphotectonics of the Central High Atlas in Morocco through analysis of morphotectonic indices recorded by topography, drainage networks, and longitudinal stream profiles. The methods used in this work were stream length-gradient index (SLI), normalized steepness index, area-altitude relations (hypsometric curves), mountain front sinuosity, drainage basin shape ratio, and asymmetry factor. The aim is to identify the role of recent tectonic activity resulting in the uplift of the Atlas chain in general and the Central High Atlas in particular. The analysis of the main rivers in the study area using linear geomorphic proxies revealed the presence of several knickpoints (about 28) most likely related to recent tectonic activity; further, the spatial distribution of SLI values reveals the presence of many anomalous zones, which are distinguished by elevated values that are perfectly aligned with major faults. The calculation of areal geomorphic proxies supports and confirms these findings. The results obtained show that the study area has been influenced by recent tectonics, and that some areas of the Central High Atlas have experienced a recent uplift due probably to a reactivation of several thrust and oblique-slip faults, then the high topography can be explained by a compressive component of the transpressional geodynamic regime suggested in the Plio-Quaternary period.

Assessment of tectonic activity based on the geomorphic indices in the middle reaches of the upstream of Jinsha River, China

The middle reaches of the upstream of Jinsha River (MRUJR) is located in the eastern segment of the Jinsha River suture zone on the southwest of China. A study of the MRUJR based on tectonic geomorphology is noteworthy for providing a profound understanding of the tectonic transition between the Sichuan‐Yunnan and Qamdo blocks and active tectonics in various subbasins. Based on the global digital elevation model Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 1 (30 m resolution) data and geographic information system techniques, four geomorphic indices, the hypsometric integral, stream length‐gradient, drainage basin asymmetry, and drainage basin shape were calculated and analysed. Combined with geologic evidence from field surveys and fault slip rates estimated, the tectonic activities and mechanisms were discussed. Through the specific analytical comparisons, the variations in the geomorphic indices were unlikely affected by lithology and climate but showed changes in relevant tectonic activity. The analysis results of geomorphic index value manifested related strong activities in the northwestern and southeastern regions of MRUJR, tilt directions are mainly SW–NE and NE–SW, respectively. The MRUJR is undergoing rapid uplift. These results are consistent with the field evidence.

Pattern of active crustal deformation in a part of a Lesser Himalayan tectonic window, Himachal Pradesh, India

Overriding the underthrusting Indian plate along the low angle detachment surface of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), the entire Himalayan wedge, consisting of several allochthonous and autochthonous sheets is actively deforming due to ongoing India-Asia convergence. However, the information on active tectonics of autochthonous sheets exposed in tectonic windows has often been eluded due to lack of directed investigations. The present study pertains to the active tectonics of the eastern part of an autochthonous sheet exposed in Kullu-Larji-Rampur window of the Lesser Himalaya. Geomorphic features and statistically analyzed geomorphic indices of Drainage Basin Shape (Bs), Hypsometric Integral (HI), Stream Length-Gradient Index (SL), Transverse Topography Symmetry Factor (T), and Basin Asymmetry Factor (AF) reveal active crustal deformation in the window caused by tectonic activities of spatially varying magnitudes. While the spatial distribution of Bs, HI, and SL suggest differential uplift of the anticlinally folded autochthonous sheet along the MHT, the spatial distributions of AF and T suggest an overall southeastward preferential shifting of the trunk streams of 3rd-order drainage basins of the terrane; the hinge zone and northwestern part of the sheet are experiencing relatively faster uplift. The faster uplift in the northwest has caused an overall southeastward down-tiling of the terrane, and thus preferential stream migration in that direction. The faster uplift of the hinge zone is considered to indicate active tightening of the fold.

Tectonic activity level evaluation using geomorphic indices in the Shekarab Mountains, Eastern Iran

In order to evaluate the level of tectonic activities in the Shekarab Mountains, several geomorphic indices such as stream length gradient index (SL), valley floor width to valley height ratio (Vf), hypsometric curve (Hc), hypsometric integral (Hi), drainage basin shape (Bs), and relative tectonic activity (Iat) were calculated. Vf values show fastest uplift, deepest valleys, and highest river incision are associated with the basin 24. The high values of SL in the range of 900 to 3250 on the high resistance rocks related to the western basins indicate that the western part of the Shekarab Mountains has had recent tectonic activities. Moreover, distribution of high Hc and Hi values are related to the highest tectonic activity in the western and northeastern basins. Accordingly, the study area was divided into four subareas based on Iat values, which are the following: class 1, very high relative tectonic activity (10.17%); class 2, high relative tectonic activity (11.77%); class 3, moderate relative tectonic activity (29.96%); and class 4, low relative tectonic activity (48.10%). It can be concluded from the Iat values that different parts of the study area had undergone unequal uplift and tectonic activities in the NE-SW direction are showing the highest uplift rate, which is in consistency with the present time compression direction in the Shekarab Mountains.

Survey of active tectonic: the influence of river morphotectonic in Aras Basin

The Aras Basin covered a wide area between Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey countries. In this study, we focused on basins that are located in NW of Iran. Zagros folding belt, volcanic masses of Sabalan, and Ararat are the main structures. The present study aims to assess the analysis of basin morphotectonic indices. Using the digital elevation model under ArcGIS techniques, we created 44 sub-basins. Then, the six morphotectonic indices including hypsometric integral (Hi), drainage basin asymmetry (Af), drainage basin shape (Bs), mountain front sinuosity (Smf), stream-length gradient (SL) index, and transverse topography symmetry (T) were analyzed and showed as map. After normalizing the map units, to access the tectonic activity, the indices of related active tectonics (IAT) were calculated. To this purpose, result of the six indices was averaged and separated in 3 classes of tectonic activity from low, moderate, to high values. Based on the IAT map, most of the study area have moderate-to-low relative tectonic activity. The basins with numbers 10, 13, 17, 22, 27, 28, 34, 36, 37, and 40 showed the high tectonic activity and mostly correspond with the active structures in the basin including Hamzehloo, Mazan, Balaban, Arabshah, Mohammad Abad, Kafil, and Zarabad faults. Generally, the fault activity will disturb the order of the basin parameters such as shape, slope, and symmetry.

A GIS-based Approach in Drainage Morphometrie Analysis of Sai River Basin, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract This study focuses on hydrogeological processes and sub-surface geological activities. The basin area measured is 11,161 km2 with NW-SE sloping trend. Sinuosity Index is 2.7 which show meandering nature. The drainage density, stream frequency and drainage intensity values were 0.62 km−1, 0.23km−1 and 0.37 respectively which implies that low surface runoff, high permeable alluvium, high infiltration rate, easily erodible alluvium and low relief. Mean Bifurcation ratio of 5.11 indicates that the basin is structurally controlled. Stream length ratio shows mature stage of erosion and low runoff. The basin is found to be significantly elongated circularity ratio, elongation ratio, form factor, shape index and shape factor is 0.07, 0.33, 0.09, 4.28 and 11.61 respectively. Drainage texture of 0.15 (km−1) suggest the smooth topography and high drainage density. Relief ratio is 0.23, low surface run-off, low erosion, and gentle slope. The constant of channel maintenance, length of overland flow, ruggedness number is 1.60, 0.80, 0.05 respectively, conclude the gentle slope, low surface runoff, high infiltration rate, least erodible and high permeability. The Rho coefficient of 0.11 shows the low capacity of water. The basin relief is 84 and relief ratio is 0.23 m indicating low run-off and low erosion. Hypsometric curve and integral show that the river is having intermediate stage of incision and erosion, Asymmetric factor, drainage basin shape, presence of high escarpment zones, fall displacement and uplifted barrier occur in the path of the channel identified in the transverse profile, longitudinal profiles due to intra-basinal sub-surface tectonic activity.

Evidence for Late Quaternary Deformation Along Crowleys Ridge, New Madrid Seismic Zone

AbstractThe New Madrid seismic zone has been the source of multiple major (M ~7.0–7.5) earthquakes in the past 2 ka, yet the surface expression of recent deformation remains ambiguous. Crowleys Ridge, a linear ridge trending north‐south for 300+ km through the Mississippi Embayment, has been interpreted as either a fault‐bounded uplift or a nontectonic erosional remnant. New and previously published seismic reflection and shallow resistivity data show discontinuities at the ridge margins in Plio‐Pleistocene strata, yet the timing of most recent faulting and the lateral extent of these faults remain unknown. To assess Pleistocene‐to‐recent tectonic activity of Crowleys Ridge, we perform landscape‐scale geomorphic analyses, such as relief, slope, hypsometry, and drainage basin shape, on a 10‐m digital elevation model (DEM). North‐to‐south variations in geomorphic indices indicate Pleistocene‐to‐recent tectonic uplift of the southern ridge. Moreover, mapping on a <1‐m lidar‐derived DEM reveals scarps on late Pleistocene geomorphic surfaces. The scarps are primarily located along the southern ridge, trend parallel to the ridge margin discontinuously for 0.1–1 km, and vertically offset <56 ka surfaces 0.4 m with up to 6 m of tilting. These landscape‐scale patterns and scarps, integrated with discontinuities in the seismic reflection and resistivity data, provide evidence of low‐rate (<0.2 mm/year) late Quaternary tectonic activity along the southern segment of Crowleys Ridge. The interpretations agree with recent tectonic models suggesting southern Crowleys Ridge is a compressional step over in a right‐lateral fault system within the Reelfoot Rift.

Is the topography playing a dual role in controlling downstream channel morphology of a monsoon dominated Dwarkeswar River, Eastern India?

This study focuses on the role of topography in downstream changes in channel morphology of a monsoon dominated Dwarkeswar River with sixty cross-sections. Bankfull channel characteristics, flow characteristics, sediment characteristics and channel pattern were analysed with respect to dissected plateau, plateau-fringe and alluvial plain using statistical analysis. There was a significantly positive relation with distance from source and width (r = 0.874), width/depth ratio (r = 0.607) and flow area (r = 0.926) in the dissected plateau, although a significantly negative relation was found in the alluvial plain (width (r = −0.963), width/depth ratio (r = −0.897), and flow area (r = −0.821)). Overall, the channel dimensions diminished in the alluvial area by 6–7 times. In both these cases, TSI values were higher than the HSI. In the PCA-1, topographic factors were more dominant and the role of drainage area, elevation, slope, basin shape and depth of sediment were opposite to each other in comparison with dissected plateau and alluvial plain.