Intensifying international geopolitical competition has prompted significant evolution within U.S. domestic trade law, shifting its use from a conventional trade remedy tool to one of unilateral sanctions to intervene in the international order. Using the U.S. Department of Commerce NME status review of Armenia (Case A-831-804), in part for purposes of observation, we find a discernible pattern of weaponizing law by closely examining the "six-factor test" and the surrogate country approach. These mechanisms strip targeted countries of their "discourse power about data" and place them under the "denial-of-market" label, forcing them to comply with "market standards set by others." From a legal standpoint, since there are no specific derogation provisions in Armenia's WTO Protocol of Accession, the U.S. action represents a substantive violation of the WTO ADA. Moreover, from the angle of Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL), it imposes structural repression on the economic sovereignty and the right to development of transitional economies. The above discussion on the logic of unilateral hegemony offers a few strategic pointers that could help China bolster its own institutional barriers and assume leadership in efforts to establish more balanced international trade rules.

The article is devoted to the history of trade and economic re-lations of the Russian Empire with Spain and Portugal in the Russian North during the XVIII and XIX centuries. Prior to the founding of St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk remained the leading center of Russia's foreign trade relations with Europe-an countries. The article analyzes the specifics of Russia's trade relations with Spain and Portugal, the range of export and import goods, prices, the number of merchant ships ar-riving in Arkhangelsk, etc. Special attention is paid to the sale of Spanish and Portuguese salt in the Russian North, on which the processing and marketing of products from the fisheries of the Pomors, Sami, Nenets, Karelians, Komi, etc. largely depended. Attention is focused on the role of Russian diplomats in promoting domestic trade interests at the Madrid and Lisbon courts. The importance of Arkhangelsk as a lead-ing center of Russian-Spanish and Russian-Portuguese trade and economic relations in the Russian North is revealed. The importance of the Russian North in the fishing activities of Spanish fishermen and whalers is noted. The importance of the sale of so-called colonial goods in the Russian North, de-livered to Spain and Portugal from their possessions in Latin America, Africa and Asia, is emphasized. In addition, the role of Spanish, Portuguese wines, aniseed vodka and other alco-holic products in the sale of goods in the Russian North has been determined. An estimate of the total exports of Portu-guese and Spanish wines to Russia based on foreign sources is presented. The article is based on rare archival documents from central and regional archives, pre-revolutionary publica-tions in Russian, English, Spanish, French and Portuguese.

This article explores how e-commerce – particularly social commerce – is empowering women small entrepreneurs in developing countries to become ‘digital entrepreneurs’. Focusing on Ghana and Senegal, it examines how women-owned businesses are leveraging social media platforms to participate in both domestic and cross-border trade, opening new pathways to economic and social inclusion. Despite its rapid growth, social commerce remains under-researched and largely overlooked by policymakers. Responding to this gap, the study draws on regional data on internet access and digital use across gender and age groups, as well as insights from an original survey of ninety-nine micro and small entrepreneurs in the two target countries. It sheds light on the socioeconomic profiles of women-led digital businesses and evaluates the opportunities and barriers they face when using social commerce – from business performance to impacts on women’s economic independence, agency, and self-esteem. The article concludes with policy recommendations to better support this dynamic yet underserved segment of the digital economy.

Subject. The use of modern digital technologies in the field of trade, interaction of trading organizations with consumers of various products. Objectives. Identification of factors contributing to the formation of competitive advantages in e-commerce. Methods. General scientific research methods were used. Results. It has been established that the change in the amount of commission payments for placing goods on online platforms is a sign of adaptation of economic entities to the specifics of e-commerce. Conclusions. The combination of various methods of organizing trade and technological processes increases the speed of forming competitive advantages in electronic commerce, which contributes to the development of domestic trade as a whole.

The objective is to analyze the current state of the country’s meat subcomplex, determine its development prospects, and identify factors limiting its further growth. Methods include analytical methods for studying the current situation in the republic’s meat industry and identifying future guidelines; statistical methods for processing and interpreting official data on production, processing, and consumption of meat products; comparative methods for comparing domestic sector indicators with foreign analogues; a systems approach to consider the meat cluster as a set of interconnected elements of production, processing, and sales; and an economic analysis method to substantiate conclusions and formulate recommendations. Results – the importance of the meat product segment, which is essential for the production of meat products, is noted. Its sustainable functioning can be ensured through comprehensive work in key areas. The meat sector, as one of the key elements of the agro-industrial complex, has strategic value for the economy and food security of the state, providing the population with essential food products and export opportunities. The role of integration and cooperation in enhancing the effectiveness of the meat industry is highlighted. Proposals for improving regulation and innovative modernization of the meat sector are formulated. Emphasis is placed on key constraints to effective structural transformation, including insufficient integration of market participants, raw material instability, and a low share of high valueadded products. The expediency of transitioning to a strategically oriented model based on technological modernization, digitalization, and strengthening cooperative links is demonstrated. Conclusions – the implementation of the proposed measures will increase the efficiency of the meat industry in Kazakhstan, strengthen its competitive position, form a competitive domestic meat trade system in structure and volume in accordance with physiological consumption standards, and expand the presence of domestic products in the international business environment

The rapid advancement of digital technology has profoundly reshaped consumer behavior, and the growth of the digital economy is accelerating industrial digitization and cluster formation. As a leading e-commerce hub in China, Hangzhou is well-positioned to integrate the digital and real economies by capitalizing on its strengths in digital commerce. However, challenges such as spatial constraints in industrial integration, bottlenecks in key resource flows, and barriers to cross-regional cooperation persist. Drawing on insights from cases such as Guangzhou-Foshan metropolitan integration, Tianlifang·Linping Future Farm, and New York's Silicon Alley, this study proposes leveraging e-commerce as a catalyst for transformation. It highlights the role of e-commerce actors in refining demand alignment, resource distribution, and governance. Additionally, it emphasizes upgrading industrial, value, and benefit chains to build a resilient industrial ecosystem. The paper further recommends promoting urban-rural integration through core industry leadership, fostering resource sharing and cross-regional collaboration to enhance synergies between domestic and international trade, and coordinating living and production spaces through guided planning and talent mobility—all to support balanced and sustainable economic development.

ABSTRACT Existing studies on domestic trade tend to ignore differences in consumer taste. This study embeds migrant taste bias into a structural gravity model. Market tastes vary according to migrant taste biases. Using data on interprovincial manufacturing trade and migration in China, this study estimates home bias in migrants' tastes. The results indicate that, for each dollar of total expenditure, consumers spend 46 cents more on products from their home province than a hypothetical, unbiased consumer would, all else equal. The migrant taste bias is robust, even after controlling for assimilation effects and alternative non‐preference mechanisms. The taste bias could explain the trade bias more than the trade cost. Counterfactual experiments show that anti‐migration policies significantly impede trade with migrants' provinces of origin, and that migrants' taste assimilation improves local consumers' welfare.

Abstract The United States food supply chain is a complex and critical network that links production to consumption, contributing to food access and security for people across the country and the world. In recent years, this network has faced significant shocks, including a trade war with China, the COVID-19 pandemic, and severe flooding and drought. While some studies have examined these impacts at the national or state level, there remains a very limited understanding of how the agri-food supply chain responded to these shocks at a finer spatial resolution. In this research, we aim to fill this gap by estimating the annual domestic agri-food flows in the US at the county spatial scale from 2018 to 2022. We analyze the spatiotemporal shifts in the food flow network and assess whether diversity in domestic trade mitigates the reductions in inflows during shocks. Our results show that significant spatial heterogeneity exists in commodity-specific responses to a shock. We also find that specific periods, which were beneficial to certain regions, could be simultaneously adverse to others. Moreover, we show that diversity in domestic trade plays a key role in minimizing inflows losses during a disruption. Our findings suggest that commodity-specific policies can be strengthened by accounting for regional socioeconomic and environmental conditions that shape network behavior during shocks. Furthermore, enhancing local diversification of inflows can make the food flows network more robust against disruptions.

Abstract Ensuring the reliability of domestic food supplies is increasingly critical given the compounding shocks of production variability, transportation constraints, and demand surges. This study develops a spatially explicit framework for Zambia, introducing the food reliability index to quantify the probability that food requirements exceed supply under stochastic conditions. By integrating probabilistic production estimates with a gravity model of domestic trade, we evaluate reliability dynamics across rural and urban landscapes. We apply this framework to establish a 2020 baseline and project future vulnerabilities to 2050. To address projected deficits, we simulate intervention scenarios, comparing the efficacy of cropland expansion, yield intensification, and transportation cost reductions. The resulting framework provides decision-makers with a tool to identify spatial imbalances and prioritize investments for enhancing food supply resilience.

The COVID-19 health crisis has affected several sectors of activity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the early socio-economic impacts of this crisis on wood processing companies (WPC) in the South region of Cameroon. Thus, six WPCs in the region, justifying at least five years of activity before the pandemic began, with a minimum of 10 employees and a production exceeding 1000 m3/year, were surveyed. This study reveals that in just one year after its onset, the crisis caused a suspension of 20% of foreign contracts, a decrease in production of approximately 33% for first-category WPCs, as well as a reduction of 15 to 20% in the prices of processed wood and of 20 to 50% in revenues within these companies. To cope with this situation, some WPCs reduced their employees by 29.42%, eliminating up to 243 jobs. The closure of borders appears to be the main consequence of COVID-19 affecting these WPCs. Indeed, the analysis of the marketing circuits of processed wood showed that 92% of the production from this region is intended for export, of which 33% is exported to China. This strong dependence of the wood sector to international trade justifies the significant impact of COVID-19 on the WPCs in the South region of Cameroon, highlighting the need to promote domestic and sub-regional wood trade.

Abstract The author, Leader to Leader's editor‐in‐chief, reflects on her recent experience at a “large learning event in Charleston, South Carolina.” While describing the discourse in some of the sessions, she notes that the subjects of politics and artificial intelligence (AI) were brought up in the question and answer portion of each session, “regardless of the topic” of the session. She describes a visit to the Old Slave Mart Museum, established in 1938 in the city, “the first museum on the history of slavery and the domestic slave trade in the United States.” The content of the exhibits, “in combination with the fear and conflict about the current state of humanity and the world that had been shared in the sessions at the learning event; led me to reflect deeply on the principle of positive change that consistently underlies all positive progress for humanity, regardless of epoch, era, or circumstance: Respect for All People.” The latter was a “…battle cry and lifelong mission of our Leader to Leader founding editor‐in‐chief Frances Hesselbein.” She also describes Peter Drucker's 1942 formulation of the concept of “a functioning society, and how Drucker believed that the public, private, and social sectors form an interdependent ecosystem.”

Abstract Mangoes are the second most produced tropical fruit, and they are widely exported and in high demand in both home and international markets. Ripening is a crucial post-harvest process that determines the quality of mature fruit consumed by customers, especially in domestic trade. Mango fruit, like other climacteric fruits, does not ripen simultaneously on the same tree, so in order to obtain ripe fruit in large quantities, either for fresh consumption or as raw material for subsequent processing, technology that can ripen the fruit simultaneously in a relatively short period of time and in large quantities is required. The research aims to investigate the influence of environmental conditions and handling treatments on the ripening process of Arumanis mangoes. A Nested Design was employed, utilizing two ripening rooms (with ambient temperature and RH, and with cold temperature and controlled RH) for mango ripening with handling treatments including no washing, washing in 1% chlorine solution, and dipping in 5% galangal extract (3 replications). Exposure to 30 ppm ethylene gas was conducted for 24 hours. Observed parameters included weight loss, colour, total soluble solids, vitamin C content, total acidity, and fruit pulp moisture content. Application of 30 ppm ethylene gas effectively ripened Arumanis mangoes within 5 days at room temperature. The results of research showed mango handling treatments had different effects on total soluble solids levels. The increase in total soluble solids levels during 5 days of storage was higher in fruit without washing treatment compared to fruit with washing in 1% chlorine solution and dipping in 5% galangal extract treatments.

Aim. Develop an algorithm to diagnose the consequences of Western sanctions on Russian agricultural development, considering state priorities for independence and import substitution. The need stems from agriculture's localization and the imperative to ensure food security/national independence via domestic resources or trade. Utilized statistical databases on agriculture in Russian regions. Employed statistical analysis, indicative planning, security diagnostics, and algorithmbased modeling. The outcomes include legal identification of the nature and expected goals of Western sanctions in the sphere of food security and national independence; a methodology for assessing sanctions' impact on agricultural activity and its independence; proposals to improve planning for regional independence from sanctions' negative effects within national food market. Presents the results of developing a methodology for assessing the impact of sanctions on the development of Russian agriculture, based on the function of food independence for meta‐group food products (Russian Food Security Doctrine). An original system of indicators for diagnosing the level of agricultural dependence/independence on sanctions was proposed, spanning from micro to macro levels. Testing the original methodology for assessing the sanctions impact on agricultural development yielded evaluation results at both regional and national levels, covering individual meta‐group food products and their aggregate.

Introduction This study aims to examine the relationships between life expectancy at birth (years) and gross domestic product per capita, gross national income per capita, and trade openness via panel data analysis. The focus on G7 countries, recognized as the world’s most developed and leading nations, allows for comparative insights into how macroeconomic factors influence public health outcomes. Understanding these relationships is essential for designing effective economic and health policies. Methods For this purpose, the G7 countries were analyzed using the panel data method for the period 1990–2023. A fixed effects model was initially applied; however, deviations from the assumptions of heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and interunit correlation were observed. Therefore, a robust panel data analysis using the Driscoll–Kraay robust standard estimator was used to ensure reliable results. Results Empirical findings show that per capita gross domestic product and trade openness have positive effects on life expectancy at birth, whereas per capita gross national income exhibits a negative effect. While the effects of per capita gross domestic product and trade openness on life expectancy are statistically significant, the effect of per capita gross national income is insignificant. Discussion These results suggest that higher GDP per capita and greater trade openness contribute positively to life expectancy at birth in G7 countries. The study provides comparative evidence from some of the world’s most developed nations and highlights the importance of macroeconomic policies in shaping public health outcomes.

Introduction/Main Objectives: Indonesia is one of the world's top three producers of marine and fishery products. Despite this, it still imports marine and fishery products, especially those that are used for production and consumption in hotels and restaurants, for catering, and in modern markets. Background Problems: The government facilitates these imports with value-added tax exemption. This research was conducted to see who would benefit from this incentive being revoked and whether doing so would fulfill the redistribution function of the taxation. Novelty: Unlike other research, which has only used either a macro or micro view, this research used both by employing a CGE model and micro simulation to see the effects of the VAT exemption revocation on marine and fishery products in Indonesia. Research Methods: The analysis focused on the effects of VAT exemption revocation on economic variables, such as the gross domestic product, exports, imports, trade balance, domestic production and demand, equivalent variation, prices, and income redistribution from changes in household consumption. The analysis was carried out with the CGE model, using GTAP Database 10. The simulation starts by adjusting the data baseline and then applying shocks to import tariffs. Finding/Results: The results show that revoking VAT exemption for the import of marine and fishery products would increase the gross domestic product, trade balance, domestic production and demand, and prices. On the other hand, it will decrease exports, imports, equivalent variation, and consumption. Conclusion: This research shows that the revocation of VAT exemption would not have a regressive effect; hence, it would fulfill the income redistribution function of the taxation. The government needs to evaluate the incentive. The limitation of this research is the use of formal documents only without considering non-tariff barriers as other factors

Abstract This study investigates the moderating role of technological innovation in the relationship between economic growth and environmental quality in Kuwait, an economy heavily reliant on hydrocarbons. Grounded in the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and Endogenous Growth frameworks, the research explores whether innovation can offset the environmental costs of economic expansion. Using annual data from 1997 to 2022, the study employs Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) and Canonical Cointegration Regression (CCR) methods to examine the long-run interactions among carbon emissions, gross domestic product, financial development, trade openness, and technological innovation. The empirical results reveal that economic growth significantly increases CO 2 emissions, confirming the early-stage EKC pattern for Kuwait. However, the interaction term between GDP and technological innovation demonstrates a negative and statistically significant effect, indicating that innovation moderates the growth–emissions relationship by reducing environmental pressure. Financial development is found to contribute modestly to emissions, while trade openness exerts an insignificant effect in the long run. Overall, the findings suggest that innovation in Kuwait remains primarily industrial and not yet environmentally transformative. Strengthening research and development capacity, fostering eco-innovation, and aligning financial and trade policies with sustainability objectives are essential to achieving a low-carbon transition. The study offers important policy directions for integrating innovation-driven strategies into Kuwait’s national development and environmental sustainability agenda.

ABSTRACT This paper contributes to the scholarly debate on secondary states’ agency in the context of US–China technological competition by examining how members of the Five Eyes (FVEY) intelligence alliance, excluding the United States, responded to perceived security risks posed by Huawei’s 5G infrastructure. While all FVEY states ultimately excluded Huawei from national networks, the pathways to this outcome diverged markedly, reflecting differences in threat perception, institutional processes, political priorities, and strategic cultures. Australia acted decisively, leveraging established mechanisms to implement a hardline stance; Canada and New Zealand proceeded cautiously, balancing domestic politics and trade concerns; and the United Kingdom initially resisted US pressure before reversing course amid domestic scrutiny. These variations show that alliance cohesion cannot be assumed, even among long-standing intelligence partners, and that convergence in policy outcomes does not imply convergence in underlying rationale, though all members ultimately reached a de facto similar outcome. The study underscores the limits of US influence over allied interpretations of asymmetric technological threats and highlights the critical role of secondary states in shaping technological geopolitics. By illuminating how liberal democracies navigate security, economic, and political imperatives in asymmetric competition, it provides insights into the challenges of multilateral coordination over emerging technologies.

Background and Research Aims: Pangolins are the most trafficked wild mammals globally, driven by highly lucrative commercial demand for their scales and meat, with China remaining a primary consumer despite trade bans. This study aims to analyze the market dynamics of illegal pangolin trade in China to inform effective conservation strategies. Methods: We examined 603 court cases from 2011 to 2022, sourced from the China Judgments Online website, involving 24,924 kg of pangolin scales and 9,400 pangolins. Data were collected through keyword searches and manual review of relevant webpage content on the China Judgments Online platform. Data analysis focused on smuggling routes, domestic trade patterns, and correlations with provincial GPP, population size, and police enforcement. Results: Seized pangolin shipments predominantly originated from Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Indonesia, and Nigeria, with the latter serving as the largest-scale exporter. Domestically, Hunan, Guangdong, and Guangxi were key sources of trafficked pangolins, while Hebei and Guangdong supplied the most scales. Guangdong exhibited the highest demand, with the greatest number of smuggled pangolins and scale weight. Individual counts and scale weight negatively correlated with provincial GPP but positively with population size. Police enforcement positively correlated with case frequency and individual counts. Conclusion: The illegal pangolin trade in China is driven by high demand in southern provinces, particularly Guangdong, with significant international sourcing from Southeast Asia and Africa. Socioeconomic factors like population size and lower GPP influence trade intensity, while enforcement impacts case detection. Implications for Conservation: Targeted interventions in high-demand provinces like Guangdong and enhanced border controls at key smuggling routes (e.g., Vietnam, Nigeria) are critical. Strengthening police enforcement and addressing socioeconomic drivers in populous, lower-GPP regions can reduce trade. These insights support global pangolin conservation by guiding policy and enforcement strategies.

Online commerce has significantly expanded the circulation of various commodities, including kratom, whose legal status in Indonesia remains controversial. At present, kratom is regulated solely for export purposes and lacks a clear legal basis for domestic trade, creating legal uncertainty in online sale transactions. This study examines the validity of kratom powder sale agreements conducted through e-commerce platforms under Article 1320 of the Indonesian Civil Code and analyzes the legal responsibility of platform providers for facilitating such transactions. The research employs a doctrinal legal method using statutory and conceptual approaches, complemented by an empirical review of kratom listings on major Indonesian e-commerce platforms. The findings indicate that online kratom transactions potentially fail to satisfy the objective requirements of a valid contract, particularly regarding lawful object and lawful cause, due to the absence of explicit domestic regulatory authorization. Empirical observations further reveal inadequate age-verification mechanisms, raising concerns over transactions involving legally incapacitated consumers. This study underscores the urgent need for comprehensive national regulation on kratom and strengthened legal obligations for e-commerce platforms to ensure consumer protection and contractual legality in digital markets.Keywords: contract; validity; kratom; e-commerce platforms; platform liability

The study examined the effect of bitcoin prices on capital flows in Nigeria. it employed descriptive statistics, co-integration analysis, and the ARDL bounds test to show short-run and long-run relationships among the variables. Multiple regression analysis was conducted using secondary data from the Central Bank of Nigeria bulletin. Bitcoin prices, exchange rate, gross domestic product, inflation rate, interest rate, stock index and trade balance were seen to have exerted both negative and positive effects on capital flows. The study highlighted the needs for policymakers to develop and implement targeted risk management to address the unique challenges posed by bitcoin and other crypto currencies and promote a stable and efficient financial system. Monetary authorities, in particular, are enjoined to develop strategies that will impact positively on the overall growth of the economy through the effective application of cryptocurrency policies . Keywords: Cryptocurrency, Bitcoin, capital flows, Gross Domestic Product, Nigeria