Domestic Coal Combustion Research Articles

Sourcing of Fossil Fuel-Derived PAH in the Environment

To investigate the effects of domestic coal burning on the distribution and isotopic composition of environmental PAH, a series of soil samples were collected in a coal-burning village nearby Glasgow, UK. Analyses showed that, typically, PAHs in the Lochwinnoch village samples were isotopically heavy having δ13C values close to −25‰ that are consistent with the PAHs emanating from coal burning. It was also noted, however, that alkylated PAHs would appear to be more prominent in soot from coal fires than in the samples collected in Lochwinnoch where domestic combustion was determined to be the major source. Therefore, to address the possibility that parent PAHs may survive in soils preferentially, two weathering experiments have commenced using a low temperature coal carbonisation tar from the Coalite process. Initial results have shown that after as little as 80 days weathering period, parent PAHs, particularly fluoranthene and pyrene, become more prominent than alkylated species, suggesting that these compounds may survive oxidation/weathering to a greater extent than their alkylated counterparts.

99/02263 PM 10 monitoring and receptor modeling in some urban areas of South Africa : Reddy, V. S. et al. Proc., Annu. Meet. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., [computer optical disk], 1997, 90, RA11804/1–RA11804/13

Several source apportionment studies have been conducted in some of the urban areas of South Africa following US EPA guidelines. These studies involved the measuring of close to 40 new source profiles, ambient air sampling, chemical analyses and the CMB7 source apportionment modeling of PM10 size fractions. Source and ambient data were collected by Mintek over a five year period at sites in Vereeniging, Vanderbijlpark and Sasolburg (all in the Vaal Triangle), Olifantsfontein, Nelspruit and Randburg. Comparison of the gravimetric data show definite seasonal trends, with the highest levels being recorded during the winter months at sampling sites close to townships which use domestic coal as their prime source of energy. In the industrial areas of the Vaal Triangle and Olifantsfontein the pollution levels are at their highest, with the US EPA 24-hour national ambient air quality standard of 150g per cubic meter being exceeded on several occasions. The US EPA annual mean standard of 50g per cubic meter was also exceeded at these sites. The lowest PM10 levels were recorded in the residential areas Randburg and Nelspruit (Valencia Park). The source apportionment results show domestic coal combustion, fugitive soil dust, secondary salts of ammonium sulfate and nitrate, and powermore » plant fly-ash to be major contributors to airborne particulate pollution. For the Nelspruit sites biomass burning is a major contributor. Minor sources include iron arc furnace, sinter plant and coking furnace dusts. Petrol vehicle emissions are also a minor source of PM10 pollution. Results from these studies emphasize the need for a continuous national air monitoring network for South Africa, from which the authorities, industry, the public and the environment can benefit.« less

Health impacts of domestic coal use in China.

Domestic coal combustion has had profound adverse effects on the health of millions of people worldwide. In China alone several hundred million people commonly burn raw coal in unvented stoves that permeate their homes with high levels of toxic metals and organic compounds. At least 3,000 people in Guizhou Province in southwest China are suffering from severe arsenic poisoning. The primary source of the arsenic appears to be consumption of chili peppers dried over fires fueled with high-arsenic coal. Coal samples in the region were found to contain up to 35,000 ppm arsenic. Chili peppers dried over high-arsenic coal fires adsorb 500 ppm arsenic on average. More than 10 million people in Guizhou Province and surrounding areas suffer from dental and skeletal fluorosis. The excess fluorine is caused by eating corn dried over burning briquettes made from high-fluorine coals and high-fluorine clay binders. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formed during coal combustion are believed to cause or contribute to the high incidence of esophageal and lung cancers in parts of China. Domestic coal combustion also has caused selenium poisoning and possibly mercury poisoning. Better knowledge of coal quality parameters may help to reduce some of these health problems. For example, information on concentrations and distributions of potentially toxic elements in coal may help delineate areas of a coal deposit to be avoided. Information on the modes of occurrence of these elements and the textural relations of the minerals and macerals in coal may help predict the behavior of the potentially toxic components during coal combustion.

Trace elements in coal: environmental and health significance.

Trace elements can have profound adverse effects on the health of people burning coal in homes or living near coal deposits, coal mines, and coal-burning power plants. Trace elements such as arsenic emitted from coal-burning power plants in Europe and Asia have been shown to cause severe health problems. Perhaps the most widespread health problems are caused by domestic coal combustion in developing countries where millions of people suffer from fluorosis and thousands from arsenism. Better knowledge of coal quality characteristics may help to reduce some of these health problems. For example, information on concentrations and distributions of potentially toxic elements in coal may help delineate areas of a coal deposit to be avoided. Information on the modes of occurrence of these elements and the textural relations of the minerals in coal may help to predict the behavior of the potentially toxic trace metals during coal cleaning, combustion, weathering, and leaching.

Particles in the Air: The Enigma of Urban Air Pollution

As British cities grew during the Industrial Revolution, so they became increasingly polluted by the smoke from factory and domestic coal combustion. During winter time, episodes of temperature inversion kept the smoke close to ground level and gave rise to the famous smogs of the first half of this century, culminating in the London smog of December 1952, which was associated with some 4000 excess deaths in 1 weekl. Knowledge of an association between cold weather and excess deaths was not new, meteorologists having studied it from the middle of the nineteenth century2, but in the early twentieth century it became apparent that cold alone did not explain the excess and that the concurrence of fogs was a likely additional factor3. The 1952 message that air pollution is bad for you, delivered so close to Parliament itself, had a dramatic effect and smoke control in towns and cities was enforced by the Clean Air Act of 1956. The pioneering Medical Research Council (MRC) air pollution unit was also set up at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School under Professor Pat Lawther and an important series of studies of the interactions of air pollutants and health, notably by Lawther and Waller, began4. This was the heyday of the 'English disease', chronic bronchitis, and the researchers concentrated (understandably) on the lung as a target for pollutants. They did, however, recognize that deaths during these episodes were often from heart disease. The legislation was so successful that smoke and sulphur dioxide concentrations in our cities fell progressively through the following three decades, and the MRC unit was eventually closed, its work apparently done. Why the excess deaths occurred has never convincingly been explained but it has been assumed that air pollution episodes, acting as the grim reaper, harvest those who, on account of severe heart or lung disease, are about to die. The closure of the MRC unit occurred at a time of rapid increase in the numbers of vehicles on our roads. As the smokey chimneys disappeared, so the streets filled with cars and lorries and their attendant exhaust fumes and gases. This increase in motor vehicles has accelerated, although fortunately there has not been a corresponding rise in air pollutants because engine and fuel technology has to date kept pace. However, the fall in air pollutants has been checked and the centres of some cities have again become unpleasant places to live in or to pass through during large parts of the day. In appropriate weather conditions, episodes of quite severe air pollution have started to return, although the constituents are not the same as those associated with the urban smogs of earlier years. And epidemiologists have once again shown associations between modem air pollution, disease and death5-7.

An updated inventory of potential PCDD and PCDF emission sources in the UK

This study updates previous estimates of emissions to the UK atmosphere of polychlorinated dibenzo- p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). Following a systematic screening of a range of industrial processes operating in the UK for the potential to release PCDD Fs to atmosphere, 23 industrial processes were shortlisted for further consideration as potential emitters. To these processes were added six non-industrial sources of PCDD F emissions; domestic coal and wood combustion, crematoria, traffic, natural fires and accidental fires. For each shortlisted process emission factors were identified. Emission factors were combined with the quantity of material treated or produced to generate an estimate of the annual quantity of PCDD Fs released to atmosphere. The total estimated current emissions to atmosphere ranged from 560 to 1100 g I-TEQ year −1, with industrial processes contributing 535–955 g I-TEQ year −1, an average of approximately 90% of the total inventory. Emissions from MSW incineration plants were dominant, contributing an average of 70% to the total emissions from industrial sources. Emissions from coal combustion, sinter plants, iron and steel plants, non-ferrous metals operations and incineration of clinical waste collectively contributed an average of 25% to total industrial emissions in roughly equal proportions. The effect of tightening emission controls was also examined. Assuming a situation when current regulations concerning PCDD F emissions are fully implemented, a reduction in emissions from 560–1100 g I-TEQ year −1 to 110–350 g I-TEQ year −1 is envisaged. The largest reduction is effected through the imposition of a 1 ng I-TEQ m −3 emission limit on MSW and clinical waste incinerators: the contribution from these sources falls from the present range of 60–85% to approximately 6–18% of total emissions.

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United Kingdom environment: A preliminary source inventory and budget

This paper presents the first attempt to quantify the production, cycling, storage and loss of PAHs in the UK environment. Over 53 000 tonnes of ∑PAHs (sum of 12 individual compounds) are estimated to reside in the contemporary UK environment, with soil being the major repository. If soils at contaminated sites are included, this estimate increases dramatically. Emission of PAHs to the UK atmosphere from primary combustion sources are estimated to be greater than 1000 tonnes ∑PAHs per annum, with over 95% coming from domestic coal combustion, unregulated fires and vehicle emissions. It is estimated that approximately 210 tonnes of ∑PAH are delivered to terrestrial surfaces each year via atmospheric deposition. Therefore, inputs of PAHs to the UK atmosphere outweigh the outputs by a factor of over 4. This may be explained by enhanced particulate deposition near point sources, PAH degradation in the atmosphere and transport away from the UK with prevailing winds. Disposal of waste residues is estimated to contribute a further 1000 tonnes of ∑PAH per year to the terrestrial environment. It is illustrated that the use of creosote has the potential to release considerable quantities of PAHs to the UK environment. Temporal trends in PAH cycling are then considered. There is good evidence to suggest that air concentrations and fluxes to the UK surface are now lower than at any time throughout this century. Nonetheless, the UK ∑PAH burden is still increasing at the present time, principally through retention by soils. However, there are marked differences in the behaviour of individual compounds: there is evidence, for example, that phenanthrene concentrations in soils have declined since the 1960s, although soil concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and other heavier PAHs have continued to increase through this century. Volatilisation of low molecular weight PAHs accumulated in soils over previous decades may be making an important contribution to the current atmospheric burden. The major uncertainties identified by data on this budget are: (1) the lack of PAH concentrations in some environmental matrices; (2) the possible importance of contaminated soils as a major repository and source of PAHs; (3) the lack of emission data (especially vapour phase releases) for some PAH sources; (4) the importance of biodegradation and volatilisation as loss mechanisms for low molecular weight PAHs in soils; and (5) the importance of creosote use in the PAH cycle.

Aqueous S(IV) oxidation—III. Catalytic effect of soot particles

Abstract The paper reports on studies of S(IV) oxidation in aqueous media containing suspensions of soot particles from domestic coal burning and activated carbon RB-1. The results show that the reaction rate depends upon dissolved iron leached from soot particles. At a low initial pH (⩽4), Fe(III) species are responsible for the high oxidation rate, whereas at a higher initial pH (5.2 – 5.5), Fe(II), which is primarily present in soot suspensions, acts as a catalyst. These homogeneous reactions dominate the catalytic effect of the coal soot surface. It is shown that the mechanism oof S(IV) oxidation catalysed by activated carbon is quite different.

Indoor air pollution and its health effects in China ‐ a review

Abstract Indoor air pollution in cities in China is mainly from domestic coal combustion, and from coal and biomass fuel combustion in rural areas. Factors affecting indoor air pollutant concentrat...

Domestic coal combustion as a source of PCDDs and PCDFs in the British environment

Samples of coal soot from UK domestic coal fires have been analysed for PCDDs and PCDFs together with samples of fly ash from UK MSWIs. The results indicate that both domestic coal combustion and household waste incineration are major sources of PCDDs and PCDFs. The significance of coal combustion is further implicated by the analysis of a historical UK soil (1927) which pre-dates recognised sources like large-scale waste incineration and widespread manufacture of organochlorine compounds but not the use of coal for domestic heating.

Measurement of respiratory morbidity in general practice in the United Kingdom during the acid transport event of January 1985.

The Weekly Returns System of the Royal College of General Practitioners was used to assess the effect on respiratory illness of the acid transport event that occurred during January 1985. The pollution event, as assessed by SO2 and smoke levels measured at pollution monitoring stations within and without the affected area showed only modest rises in SO2 levels, which were less than levels that occurred 4 years earlier. January is the peak time of year for reporting of acute respiratory episodes, and the minor increase in pollution was not reflected in any rise in respiratory morbidity, both for all ages and for different age bands. There was a rise in rates for children up to the age of 14, but this was seen each year and in both polluted and nonpolluted areas. This was probably due to children returning to school after the winter vacation and the subsequent spread of viral infections. The limitations of the two data sets in this analysis are discussed, including the relative insensitivity of weekly data in picking out a short-lived event, the distribution of the practices and pollution monitoring stations, and the effect of the extreme cold weather and the coal miners' strike on domestic coal burning during this event.

Measurement of Respiratory Morbidity in General Practice in the United Kingdom during the Acid Transport Event of January 1985

The Weekly Returns System of the Royal College of General Practitioners was used to assess the effect on respiratory illness of the acid transport event that occurred during January 1985. The pollution event, as assessed by SO2 and smoke levels measured at pollution monitoring stations within and without the affected area showed only modest rises in SO2 levels, which were less than levels that occurred 4 years earlier. January is the peak time of year for reporting of acute respiratory episodes, and the minor increase in pollution was not reflected in any rise in respiratory morbidity, both for all ages and for different age bands. There was a rise in rates for children up to the age of 14, but this was seen each year and in both polluted and nonpolluted areas. This was probably due to children returning to school after the winter vacation and the subsequent spread of viral infections. The limitations of the two data sets in this analysis are discussed, including the relative insensitivity of weekly data in picking out a short-lived event, the distribution of the practices and pollution monitoring stations, and the effect of the extreme cold weather and the coal miners' strike on domestic coal burning during this event.

An index of atmospheric pollution survey in Armadale, Central Scotland

A modified ‘Index of Atmospheric Pollution’ (I.A.P.) survey was carried out in December 1980/January 1981, in Armadale, Central Scotland. The purpose of this survey was to obtain a general picture of the pollution pattern within Armadale and an information base necessary for future detailed metal pollution surveys. The results revealed four different pollution zones in Armadale, with the most polluted zone being in the vicinity of the steel foundry; all zones were slightly elongated in the direction of the main wind axis. These zones probably reflected a combination of the foundry pollution and, to a lesser extent, of the SO2 pollution from domestic coal combustion.