Estimates Of Diversity Research Articles

Comparative analysis of the myriapod fauna (Diplopoda, Chilopoda) of the Shumen Plateau and the Madara Plateau (Northeastern Bulgaria)

Abstract At present, the inventory lists of the Myriapoda of many geographical areas in Bulgaria and the comparative analyzes of the similarity between such local faunas are scarce or completely missing. The present paper presents the results of the comparative analysis of α- and β-diversity of the myriapoda communities in natural habitats in two regions in Northeastern Bulgaria – the Shumen Plateau and the Madara Plateau. The compared habitats in these plateaus have similar geographical, soil and climatic conditions, and similar species composition of plant formations. The analysis of the structure of the myriapoda communities included estimation of species diversity by determining the Shannon-Wiever index (H’) and the Berger-Parker index (d). The degree of similarity between the species composition of the communities was analyzed by the Czekanowski-Dice-Sörensen, Jaccard, Bray-Curtis, Horn, Morisita-Horn indices and the corrected Chao-Sörensen and Chao-Jaccard indices. The species diversity of the millipede community in the Shumen Plateau is much greater than that of the Madara Plateau, while the diversity of the centipede communities in the two plateaus does not differ significantly. In both classes the greatest species diversity is registered in deciduous and mixed deciduous-coniferous forests. Chao-Sörensen and Chao-Jaccard indices of similarity for the myriapod communities in these habitats are the highest, approaching 1, in contrast to the other sites where the registered species composition of the centipedes is smaller and the degree of similarity is about 0.6.

Free-living nematodes research: State of the art, prospects, and future directions. A bibliometric analysis approach

Nematodes are among the most successful metazoans inhabiting the Earth and they are pivotal components as in terrestrial as in aquatic (both in marine and freshwater) environments providing important ecosystem services. The aim of this study was to understand major research trends and topics on free-living nematodes inhabiting soil, marine and freshwater environments and to highlight possible differences among them. To achieve this objective, a bibliometric analysis was performed using Scopus database. The indexed global scientific literature on free-living nematodes from 1912 to 2021 was explored using VOSviewer software, allowing a comprehensive overview of the topic. The analyses of co-authorship (among researchers and countries), the co-occurrence of keywords and the analysis of citation of journals were performed. Overall, free-living soil nematodes found a wider audience in high ranked journals especially when compared with freshwater nematodes. Marine nematodes stand in between them and many aspects of biodiversity research in marine ecosystems are covered by high-medium ranked journals (i.e. taxonomy, systematic, phylogeny, morphological and genetic diversity). Although, the estimation of the taxonomic diversity of the phylum Nematoda enumerated a high number of documents, an increasing attention emerged for the investigation of pollution effects (i.e. nematodes as bioindicators of environmental status) and the use of nematodes as model organisms for addressing scientific questions in line with the Eco-Evo-Devo (Ecological Evolutionary Developmental biology) approach. These fundamental themes were indirectly confirmed by the co-authorship analysis, which revealed that taking integrative approaches between taxonomy (both morphological and molecular), ecological and evolutionary aspects attracted a higher number of citations.

Comparison of iSeq and MiSeq as the two platforms for 16S rRNA sequencing in the study of the gut of rat microbiome

Amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the 16S ribosomal RNA (16S) regions is a culture-free method used to identify and analyze Procaryota occurring within a given sample. The prokaryotic 16S rRNA gene contains conserved regions and nine variable regions (V1-V9) frequently used for phylogenetic classification of genus or species in diverse microbial populations. This work compares the accuracy and efficacy of two platforms, iSeq and MiSeq from Illumina, used in sequencing 16S rRNA. The most important similarities and differences of 16S microbiome sequencing in 20 fecal rat samples were described. Genetic libraries were prepared according to 16S Metagenomic Sequencing Library Preparation (Illumina) for the V3 and V4 regions of the 16S. The species richness obtained using iSeq technology was lower compared to MiSeq. At the second taxonomy level (L2), the abundance of taxa was comparable for both platforms. At the L7, the taxa abundance was significantly different, and the number of taxa was higher for the MiSeq. The alpha diversity was lower for iSeq than for MiSeq, starting from the order to the species level. The beta diversity estimation revealed statistically significant differences in microbiota diversity starting from the class level to the species level in samples sequenced on two investigated platforms. This work disclosed that the iSeq platform could be used to evaluate the bacterial profile of the samples to characterize the overall profile. The MiSeq System seems to be better for a detailed analysis of the differences in the microbiota composition.Key points• iSeq platform allows to shorten the sequencing time three times compared to the MiSeq.• iSeq can only be used for an initial and quick microbiome assessment.• MiSeq is better for a detailed analysis of the differences in the microbiota composition.

English

Purple-grain maize is a marginal cereal grown exclusively and consumed in the Central-North of Côte d'Ivoire. However, few studies have been done on the diversity of this cultivar. Whereas, the use of local genetic resources available for breeding purposes requires a good knowledge of their agronomic and morphological characteristics. Thus, 70 accessions of purple-grain maize collected in the Hambol region were subject to an agro-morphological characterization study. The test was carried out in an alpha-lattice device (10 × 7) and repeated three times. The observations focus on 18 variables which have been selected in the maize descriptor proposed by Bioversity International. Descriptive analyses revealed a high inter-accession variability for quantitative traits. The multi varied analyses (principal component analysis (PCA) and a hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA)) made it possible to structure this diversity into two groups. The semi-flowering cycles (FlMa and FlFe), the heights of the plants (HaPl and HiEp) as well as the length of maize cobs (LoEp) were the main discriminating characters between the groups, because they could be used as estimators of phenotypic diversity for this plant. In addition, the accessions from each group could be brewed in order to develop different populations with broad genetic base. This will permit to enhance and to conserve diversity. Key words: Côte d’Ivoire, agro-morphological diversity, purple-grain maize, marginal.

Metabarcoding assessment of fungal diversity in brown algae and sponges of Mauritius.

Marine fungi are largely associated with second most inhabitants of the marine ecosystem such as sponges and algae. They are important colonizers and play vital ecological roles, such as nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and symbiosis with other organisms. High throughput sequencing methods have been used successfully to reveal unknown fungal communities associated with a number of hosts particularly in the marine environment. However, the diversity of marine fungi associated with sponges and brown algae in Mauritius remains largely unknown. Traditional methods based on culturing do not provide reliable estimate of fungal diversity as only those that are able to grow under laboratory conditions are dominant; in addition, a large proportion of fungi, cultured in vitro remain most of the time unidentifiable, given that there are no sporulating structures to be examined morphologically. To overcome these limitations, we employed Illumina sequencing to unravel fungi species present in the sponges, Iotrochota sp. and Biemna sp. and the brown algae Turbinaria conoides, Sargassum pfeifferae, and Sargassum obovatum, collected from the north of Mauritius. Diversity analyses revealed that Biemna sp. had the highest diversity from the sampled sponges with fungi from 24 orders being recovered while from brown algae; Turbinaria conoides had the highest diversity with recovery of fungal taxa of the orders Botryosphaeriales, Chaetothyriales, Eurotiales, Hypocreales, and Mucorales with the latter four orders being common in both sampled algae and sponges. Beta diversity analyses revealed clustering only in the algae, Turbinaria conoides, and Sargassum pfeifferae and not in the co-occurring sponges, indicating that sampling location did not have much influence on fungal diversity. Our findings provide the first amplicon sequencing based insights of the fungal communities associated with macro-algae and sponges in Mauritius and supplements research on the fungal community existing in the oceans around the world.

Local environmental conditions influence species replacement in Great Lakes interdunal wetland macroinvertebrate communities

Abstract Understanding the role of environmental filtering and spatial processes along environmental gradients in assembling and maintaining aquatic communities in rare habitats is crucial for land management and biological conservation. We investigated the relative roles of environmental and spatial factors influencing beta (β) diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages in 36 interdunal wetlands from five freshwater sand dune areas across two ecoregions spanning the latitudinal gradient of Lake Michigan. We hypothesised that aquatic macroinvertebrate diversity and composition would vary along the coastline because of an underlying environmental gradient. We predicted high species replacement correlated with environmental (local and regional) conditions and increasing species diversity with decreasing latitude. We calculated sample completeness, obtained diversity estimates based on Hill numbers and used abundance‐based β partitioning and multivariate analysis to examine β diversity, and its replacement and nestedness components in relation to local and regional predictors. Despite a short latitudinal gradient, we detected a significant increase in species richness with decreasing latitude, underpinned by a strong temperature and precipitation gradient. Species replacement (balanced variation in abundance) was high at all spatial scales (wetland, dune area, ecoregion and coastline), and correlated with local and regional environmental variables. Community dissimilarity showed no marked increase with spatial extent, which suggests a system where local‐scale environmental filtering prevents dispersal driven homogenisation. Both local and bioclimatic factors were correlated with aquatic macroinvertebrate dissimilarity, but local factors played a larger role. This study simultaneously examined the response of alpha and β diversity to geographical and environmental variables. Our results indicate that macroinvertebrates respond to abiotic factors by tracking suitable environmental conditions among locally variable interdunal wetlands. Thus, high dispersal along the coastline conveys resiliency to a hydrologically dynamic wetland system, which allows aquatic macroinvertebrates to contribute an integral portion of sand dune biodiversity within the Laurentian Great Lakes region. The high species turnover found suggests that conservation strategies should consider coastline connectivity among dune areas to maintain freshwater biodiversity.

Sampling biases obscure the early diversification of the largest living vertebrate group.

Extant ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) dominate marine and freshwater environments, yet spatio-temporal diversity dynamics following their origin in the Palaeozoic are poorly understood. Previous studies investigate face-value patterns of richness, with only qualitative assessment of biases acting on the Palaeozoic actinopterygian fossil record. Here, we investigate palaeogeographic trends, reconstruct local richness and apply richness estimation techniques to a recently assembled occurrence database for Palaeozoic ray-finned fishes. We identify substantial fossil record biases, such as geographical bias in sampling centred around Europe and North America. Similarly, estimates of diversity are skewed by extreme unevenness in the occurrence distributions, reflecting historical biases in sampling and taxonomic practices, to the extent that evenness has an overriding effect on diversity estimates. Other than a genuine rise in diversity in the Tournaisian following the end-Devonian mass extinction, diversity estimates for Palaeozoic actinopterygians appear to lack biological signal, are heavily biased and are highly dependent on sampling. Increased sampling of poorly represented regions and expanding sampling beyond the literature to include museum collection data will be critical in obtaining accurate estimates of Palaeozoic actinopterygian diversity. In conjunction, applying diversity estimation techniques to well-sampled regional subsets of the ‘global’ dataset may identify accurate local diversity trends.

Estimation of functional diversity and species traits from ecological monitoring data

The twin crises of climate change and biodiversity loss define a strong need for functional diversity monitoring. While the availability of high-quality ecological monitoring data is increasing, the quantification of functional diversity so far requires the identification of species traits, for which data are harder to obtain. However, the traits that are relevant for the ecological function of a species also shape its performance in the environment and hence, should be reflected indirectly in its spatiotemporal distribution. Thus, it may be possible to reconstruct these traits from a sufficiently extensive monitoring dataset. Here, we use diffusion maps, a deterministic and de facto parameter-free analysis method, to reconstruct a proxy representation of the species' traits directly from monitoring data and use it to estimate functional diversity. We demonstrate this approach with both simulated data and real-world phytoplankton monitoring data from the Baltic Sea. We anticipate that wider application of this approach to existing data could greatly advance the analysis of changes in functional biodiversity.

Filling gaps in the diversity and biogeography of Chilean millipedes (Myriapoda: Diplopoda)

Research on the diversity and biogeography of Chilean millipedes represents a significant gap in knowledge. To reduce this gap we conducted a study: (1) to investigate the current state of knowledge of millipede diversity, and (2) to assess the pattern and causes underlying the latitudinal diversity gradient in Chilean millipedes. In Chile, 95 native millipede species have been recorded. However, rarefaction and extrapolation curves showed that increased sampling effort will reveal more species. An asymptotic estimate of diversity predicted that millipede diversity fluctuates between 125 and 197 species. The estimate, though, was based on a limited data set. Therefore, millipede diversity is probably higher than predicted. Chilean millipedes were categorized as micro-range endemics because they all have latitudinal ranges of less than 1,000 km (with 78% of species exhibiting latitudinal ranges of only ~222 km). Millipede species richness also exhibited a bell-shaped latitudinal diversity gradient, i.e. diversity peaks in the temperate climate of central Chile and decreases towards the arid and polar climates of northern and southern Chile. A multiple regression analysis revealed that this biogeographic pattern is shaped by environmental variables related to water availability, ambient energy inputs and climatic stability. These environmental variables are proxies for two of the five biogeographic hypotheses we tested in this study, i.e. the water-energy balance hypothesis and climatic stability hypothesis. Both hypotheses suggest that millipedes need stable, humid and warm climates to grow, survive and reproduce (niche conservatism). These climatic conditions are only found in central Chile, which is consistent with the diversity peak observed in that region.

High throughput SNP chip as cost effective new monitoring tool for assessing invasion dynamics in the comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi

High throughput low-density SNP arrays provide a cost-effective solution for population genetic studies and monitoring of genetic diversity as well as population structure commonly implemented in real time stock assessment of commercially important fish species. However, the application of high throughput SNP arrays for monitoring of invasive species has so far not been implemented. We developed a species-specific SNP array for the invasive comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi based on whole genome re-sequencing data. Initially, a total of 1,395 high quality SNPs were identified using stringent filtering criteria. From those, 192 assays were designed and validated, resulting in the final panel of 116 SNPs. Markers were diagnostic between the northern and southern M. leidyi lineages and highly polymorphic to distinguish populations. Despite using a reduced representation of the genome, our SNP panel yielded comparable results to using a whole genome re-sequencing approach (832,323 SNPs), recovering similar values of genetic differentiation between samples and detecting the same clustering groups when performing Structure analyses. The resource presented here provides a cost-effective, high throughput solution for population genetic studies, allowing to routinely genotype large number of individuals. Monitoring of genetic diversity and effective population size estimations in this highly invasive species will allow for the early detection of new introductions from distant source regions or hybridization events. Thereby, this SNP chip represents an important management tool in order to understand invasion dynamics and opens the door for implementing such methods for a wider range of non-indigenous invasive species.

Molecular Characterization of Wild and Cultivated Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) through DNA Barcode Markers.

Background DNA barcoding is a useful technique for the identification, conservation, and diversity estimation at the species level in plants. The current research work was carried out to characterize selected Fragaria species from northern Pakistan using DNA barcode markers. Methodology. Initially, the efficacy of eight DNA barcode markers was analyzed based on the amplification and sequencing of the genome of selected Fragaria species. The resultant sequences were analyzed using BLAST, MEGA 7.0, and Bio Edit software. The phylogenetic tree was constructed by using Fragaria current species sequences and reference sequences through the neighbor-joining method or maximum likelihood method. Results Among eight DNA barcode markers, only two (ITS2 and rbclC) were amplified, and sequences were obtained. ITS2 sequence was BLAST in NCBI for related reference species which ranged from 89.79% to 90.05% along with Fragaria vesca (AF163517.1) which have 99.05% identity. Similarly, the rbclC sequence of Fragaria species was ranged from 96% to 99.58% along with Fragaria × ananassa (KY358226.1) which had 99.58% identity. Conclusion It is recommended that DNA barcode markers are a useful tool to identify the genetic diversity of a species. Moreover, this study could be helpful for the identification of the Fragaria species cultivated in other regions of the world.

Comparative analysis of capture methods for genomic profiling of circulating tumor cells in colorectal cancer

The genomic profiling of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in the bloodstream should provide clinically relevant information on therapeutic efficacy and help predict cancer survival. Here, we contrasted the genomic profiles of CTC pools recovered from metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) patients using different enrichment strategies (CellSearch, Parsortix, and FACS). Mutations inferred in the CTC pools differed depending on the enrichment strategy and, in all cases, represented a subset of the mutations detected in the matched primary tumor samples. However, the CTC pools from Parsortix, and in part, CellSearch, showed diversity estimates, mutational signatures, and drug-suitability scores remarkably close to those found in matching primary tumor samples. In addition, FACS CTC pools were enriched in apparent sequencing artifacts, leading to much higher genomic diversity estimates. Our results highlight the utility of CTCs to assess the genomic heterogeneity of individual tumors and help clinicians prioritize drugs in mCRC.

A turn in species conservation for hairpin banksias: demonstration of oversplitting leads to better management of diversity.

Understanding evolutionary history and classifying discrete units of organisms remain overwhelming tasks, and lags in this workload concomitantly impede an accurate documentation of biodiversity and conservation management. Rapid advances and improved accessibility of sensitive high-throughput sequencing tools are fortunately quickening the resolution of morphological complexesand thereby improving the estimation of species diversity. The recently described and critically endangered Banksia vincentia is morphologically similar to the hairpin banksia complex (B. spinulosa s.l.), a group of eastern Australian flowering shrubs whose continuum of morphological diversity has been responsible for taxonomic controversy and possibly questionable conservation initiatives. To assist conservation while testing the current taxonomy of this group, we used high-throughput sequencing to infer a population-scale evolutionary scenario for a sample set that is comprehensive in its representation of morphological diversity and a 2500-km distribution. Banksia spinulosa s.l. represents two clades, each with an internal genetic structure shaped through historical separation by biogeographic barriers. This structure conflicts with the existing taxonomy for the group. Corroboration between phylogeny and population statistics aligns with the hypothesis that B. collina, B. neoanglica, and B. vincentia should not be classified as species. The pattern here supports how morphological diversity can be indicative of a locally expressed suite of traits rather than relationship. Oversplitting in the hairpin banksias is atypical since genomic analyses often reveal that species diversity is underestimated. However, we show that erring on overestimation can yield negative consequences, such as the disproportionate prioritization of a geographically anomalous population.

Exploring the link between spectral variance and upper canopy taxonomic diversity in a tropical forest: influence of spectral processing and feature selection

AbstractThe rapid loss of biodiversity in tropical rainforests calls for new remote sensing approaches capable of providing rapid estimates of biodiversity over large areas. Imaging spectroscopy has shown potential for the estimation of taxonomic diversity, but the link with spectral diversity has not been investigated extensively with experimental data so far. We explored the relationship between taxonomic diversity and visible to near infrared spectral variance derived from various spectral processing techniques by means of a labeled dataset comprising 2000 individual tree crowns from 200 species from an experimental tropical forest station in French Guiana. We generated a set of artificially assembled communities covering a broad range of taxonomic diversity from this experimental dataset. We analyzed the impact of various processing steps: spectral normalization, spectral transformation through principal component analysis, and feature selection. Correlation between taxonomic diversity and inter‐specific spectral variance was strong. Correlation was lower with total spectral variance, with or without normalization and transformation. Dimensionality reduction through feature selection resulted in dramatic improvement of the correlation between Shannon index and spectral variance. While airborne diversity mapping of tropical forest may not be at hand yet, our results confirm that spectral diversity metrics, when computed on properly preprocessed and selected spectral information can predict taxonomic diversity in tropical ecosystems.

Species Composition, Diversity, and Biomass Estimation in Coastal and Marine Protected Areas of Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia

We investigated and compared the tree species composition and diversity of different forest types in Setiu Wetlands and on the three major islands of Terengganu. A total of 24 plots of 25 m × 25 m with four plots in each study site were established, viz. Melaleuca swamp forest in Kampung Fikri, freshwater swamp forest in Kampung Gong Batu, mangrove forest in UMT Setiu research station, and the islands, namely Pulau Bidong, Pulau Redang, and Pulau Perhentian. We calculated the basal area, stand density, Importance Value Index, species diversity, and above-ground biomass in the designated study areas. We assessed 139 tree species from 96 genera and 50 families based on a total of 2608 tree samples of 5 cm DBH and above. The freshwater swamp forest harbored the highest number of species with 20 species in Setiu Wetlands, and among the islands, Pulau Redang had the highest with 56 species. Melaleuca cajuputi was the most dominant species in the Melaleuca swamp forest, while Alstonia spatulata and Rhizophora apiculata are expected in the freshwater swamp and mangrove forest, respectively. Pulau Bidong, Pulau Redang, and Pulau Perhentian are mostly represented by Licania splendens, Shorea glauca, and Vatica sp., respectively. All the dominant species but Licania splendens contributed to the highest amount of above-ground biomass. Our current study indicated that different forest types vary in composition and structure, which may contribute to their unique ecological roles within their specific environment.

DIVERSIDADE GENÉTICA ENTRE GENÓTIPOS DE MELÃO-DE-SÃO-CAETANO ACESSADA POR VARIÁVEIS MORFOAGRONÔMICAS

ABSTRACT Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) is a plant species recommended by the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (Anvisa) as hypoglycemiant. The characterization of plants is an essential step in any breeding program. The objective of the present work was to organize and characterize a bitter melon germplasm collection, based on morpho-agronomic characters, to assess its genetic diversity and identify genotypes of agronomic interest. Eighty-eight genotypes were characterized for 38 descriptors. Redundant descriptors were identified through Principal Component Analysis (PCA); after their exclusions, a new PCA was carried out to verify the dispersion among the genotypes. Groups in the PCA were defined using the kmeans clustering method. The groups were studied for phenotype pattern using radar chart. Populational diversity was estimated through Shannon and Pielou indexes. Intra group diversity was estimated through analysis of similarity (anosim). The relative importance of variables for diversity was also estimated. Seventeen variables were redundant. The genotypes were grouped into 5 groups. Groups G1 and G5 were antagonist regarding fruit and seed productions and fruit, leaf, and seed sizes. A trend of decrease in fruit, leaf, and seed sizes was found in groups from G1 to G5. The diversity was high. Intra group diversity was high among small fruit genotypes, and low for medium-sized fruit genotypes. The variable number of male flowers (NMFL) was identified as that presented the greatest contribution to estimation of diversity. The genotypes UFRRJ MSC072, 042, 028, and 087 stood out with the highest number of fruits produced.

Genetic characterization of maize (Zea mays L.) landraces grown in Kosovo assessed by MITE-Hbr markers

The genetic characterization of 6-8 individual seedlings per each of 20 landraces was conducted by Hbr display. The most efficient genetic diversity estimator to distinguish between landraces was primer combination Hbr-Int5-F/MseI+T. The strongest genetic relatedness (r = 55.57) had landrace ACC4 having orange colored seeds, showing the highest genetic uniformity when compared to other accessions. As a measure of population structure influenced by genetic drift and migration, Fst values for each genetic cluster were obtained. Higher Fst (0.4027) was calculated within the first genetic group comparing to the second one (0.2001), reflecting a higher levels of out-crossing and conservation between landraces from the first genetic cluster. A similar distribution of genetic linkages was observed from dendrogram, constructed using Dice coefficient and NJ algorithm with minor deviations for landraces ACC6 and ACC28. Genotypes of ACCmk landrace reveal the highest genetic distinction compared to other genotypes, reflecting the highest number of bands (241) and the highest number of private bands (10), respectively.

Genetic Variation Among Tropical Maize Inbred Lines from NARS and CGIAR Breeding Programs

The use of molecular markers allows for precise estimates of genetic diversity, which is an important parameter that enables breeders to select parental lines and designing breeding systems. We assessed the level of genetic diversity and population structure in a panel of 151 tropical maize inbred lines using 10,940 SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) markers generated through the DArTseq genotyping platform. The average gene diversity was 0.39 with expected heterozygosity ranging from 0.00 to 0.84, and a mean of 0.02. Analysis of molecular variance showed that 97% of allelic diversity was attributed to individual inbred lines within the populations while only 3% was distributed among the populations. Both neighbor-joining clustering and STRUCTURE analysis classified the inbred lines into four major groups. The crosses that involve inbred lines from most divergent subgroups are expected to generate maximum heterosis and produce wide variation. The results will be beneficial for breeders to better understand and exploit the genetic diversity available in the set of maize inbred lines we studied.

Floristic diversity of Threatened medicinal plants at two major reservoirs associated regions in Lahaul Valley, Western Himalayas, India

Agriculture is the leading sector in Ethiopia and its economy The present study emphasizes the quantitative estimation of plant species diversity and ecosystems at Lahaul-Spiti two lake reservoirs, Deepak tall (DT) and Suraj Tall (ST). These are the finest visiting spots in Keylong (Himachal Pradesh), India, during summer. Despite huge anthropogenic pressure and environmental disturbance, the reservoir-associated regions still harbor numerous angiosperm species, including various grasses and medicinal herbs. Two-year surveys were conducted in six-landscape elements at an altitude of 3752 m and 4890 m. Plant diversity assessment was based on their numbers in each Landscape element (LSEs) using a 2m2 quadrant followed by random sampling methods for herbs, shrubs, and grasses. Within the total 32 specimens belonging to 17 families (most dominated by Asteraceae), 29 plants show medicinal importance. The east landscape of ST was observed with maximum species richness (Shannon wiener H =1.07), followed by the Northeast (H =1.05) dominated by Saxifraga mucronulata royle (35), Tussilago farfara (l), and T. farfara (26). The maximum species richness value was for Impatiens glandulifera (26 plants/m2), while Gentianella moorcroftiana (43 plants/m2) and categorized as vulnerable species. Highest population of the endangered plant was recorded in ST where Allardia tomentosa (9 plants/m2), Nepeta longibracteata (7 plants/m2), Pleurospermum candollei (6 plants/m2), and S. mucronulata (35 plants/m2) comparatively to DT enriched with five vulnerable species (G. moorcroftiana, Chamerion latifolium, Ranunculus hirtellus and Rheum emodii). Considering the floristic diversity value, effective attention towards conserving valuable plant bio-resources is suggested.

Evidence of an additional centre of apple domestication in Iran, with contributions from the Caucasian crab apple Malus orientalis Uglitzk. to the cultivated apple gene pool.

Divergence processes in crop-wild fruit tree complexes in pivotal regions for plant domestication such as the Caucasus and Iran remain little studied. We investigated anthropogenic and natural divergence processes in apples in these regions using 26 microsatellite markers amplified in 550 wild and cultivated samples. We found two genetically distinct cultivated populations in Iran that are differentiated from Malus domestica, the standard cultivated apple worldwide. Coalescent-based inferences showed that these two cultivated populations originated from specific domestication events of Malus orientalis in Iran. We found evidence of substantial wild-crop and crop-crop gene flow in the Caucasus and Iran, as has been described in apple in Europe. In addition, we identified seven genetically differentiated populations of wild apple (M. orientalis), not introgressed by the cultivated apple. Niche modelling combined with genetic diversity estimates indicated that these wild populations likely resulted from range changes during past glaciations. This study identifies Iran as a key region in the domestication of apple and M. orientalis as an additional contributor to the cultivated apple gene pool. Domestication of the apple tree therefore involved multiple origins of domestication in different geographic locations and substantial crop-wild hybridization, as found in other fruit trees. This study also highlights the impact of climate change on the natural divergence of a wild fruit tree and provides a starting point for apple conservation and breeding programmes in the Caucasus and Iran.