Distributed Routing Algorithm Research Articles

Physarum-inspired routing protocol for energy harvesting wireless sensor networks

In order to resolve the traditional limited lifetime problem, energy harvesting technology has been introduced into wireless sensor network (WSN) in recent years, engendering a new kind of network which is called energy harvesting wireless sensor network (EHWSN). In EHWSNs, besides the traditional issues, such as energy consumption, energy equilibrium, transmission efficiency, etc., there are still new challenges, such as how to utilize harvested energy efficiently and how to make more sensor nodes so as to achieve unlimited lifetime under actual situation. In this paper, inspired by slime mold Physarum polycephalum, a novel bionic routing protocol, abbreviated as EHPRP, is proposed for EHWSNs to address above problems without predicting harvestable energy value. Three distributed routing algorithms with low algorithm complexity are proposed which would prominently reduce the processing delay and conserve energy. Furthermore, the mathematic theoretical analysis is made to prove the stability of EHPRP routing strategy. Finally, simulation results present that, compared with other typical algorithms, EHPRP consumes less energy, always making the whole network obtain an unlimited lifetime, and displaying more uniform network energy distribution under different workload conditions.

Scheduling for Emergency Tasks in Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are widely applied in industrial manufacturing systems. By means of centralized control, the real-time requirement and reliability can be provided by WSNs in industrial production. Furthermore, many approaches reserve resources for situations in which the controller cannot perform centralized resource allocation. The controller assigns these resources as it becomes aware of when and where accidents have occurred. However, the reserved resources are limited, and such incidents are low-probability events. In addition, resource reservation may not be effective since the controller does not know when and where accidents will actually occur. To address this issue, we improve the reliability of scheduling for emergency tasks by proposing a method based on a stealing mechanism. In our method, an emergency task is transmitted by stealing resources allocated to regular flows. The challenges addressed in our work are as follows: (1) emergencies occur only occasionally, but the industrial system must deliver the corresponding flows within their deadlines when they occur; (2) we wish to minimize the impact of emergency flows by reducing the number of stolen flows. The contributions of this work are two-fold: (1) we first define intersections and blocking as new characteristics of flows; and (2) we propose a series of distributed routing algorithms to improve the schedulability and to reduce the impact of emergency flows. We demonstrate that our scheduling algorithm and analysis approach are better than the existing ones by extensive simulations.

A Box-Covering-Based Routing Algorithm for Large-Scale SDNs

A routing algorithm is the pivotal and core issue in network communication. Traditional networks often use distributed routing algorithms that lead to difficulties in controlling network routes and accessing information concerning global topology. A software-defined network (SDN) is a new network framework that separates the network control plane from the forwarding/data plane. SDNs can access global topology through SDN controllers and make forwarding decisions based on flow tables. In this paper, we propose a box-covering-based routing (BCR) algorithm using a renormalization method that is applied to research the fractal dimensions of large-scale networks. We divide the entire SDN network into some subnets using a box-covering method, find the shortest path in every subnet and between subnets, and embed the proposed BCR algorithm code inside the SDN controller. We then design a testbed based on the Ryu controller and the Mininet platform for this algorithm. The results show that the proposed BCR algorithm has good low-latency performance and is suitable for a large-scale SDN.

Energy-aware distributed routing algorithm to tolerate network failure in wireless sensor networks

Wireless Sensor Networks are prone to link/node failures due to various environmental hazards such as interference and internal faults in deployed sensor nodes. Such failures can result in a disconnection in part of the network and the sensed data being unable to obtain a route to the sink(s), i.e. a network failure. Network failures potentially degrade the Quality of Service (QoS) of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It is very difficult to monitor network failures using a manual operator in a harsh or hostile environment. In such environments, communication links can easy fail because of node unequal energy depletion and hardware failure or invasion. Thus it is desirable that deployed sensor nodes are capable of overcoming network failures. In this paper, we consider the problem of tolerating network failures seen by deployed sensor nodes in a WSN. We first propose a novel clustering algorithm for WSNs, termed Distributed Energy Efficient Heterogeneous Clustering (DEEHC) that selects cluster heads according to the residual energy of deployed sensor nodes with the aid of a secondary timer. During the clustering phase, each sensor node finds k-vertex disjoint paths to cluster heads depending on the energy level of its neighbor sensor nodes. We then present a k-Vertex Disjoint Path Routing (kVDPR) algorithm where each cluster head finds k-vertex disjoint paths to the base station and relays their aggregate data to the base station. Furthermore, we also propose a novel Route Maintenance Mechanism (RMM) that can repair k-vertex disjoint paths throughout the monitoring session. The resulting WSNs become tolerant to k-1 failures in the worst case. The proposed scheme has been extensively tested using various network scenarios and compared to the existing state of the art approaches to show the effectiveness of the proposed scheme.

Energy-Aware Routing in Multiple Domains Software-Defined Networks

The growing energy consumption of communication networks has attracted the attention of the networking researchers in the last decade. In this context, the new architecture of Software-Defined Networks (SDN) allows a flexible programmability, suitable for the power-consumption optimization problem. In this paper we address the issue of designing a novel distributed routing algorithm that optimizes the power consumption in large scale SDN with multiple domains. The solution proposed, called DEAR (Distributed Energy-Aware Routing), tackles the problem of minimizing the number of links that can be used to satisfy a given data traffic demand under performance constraints such as control traffic delay and link utilization. To this end, we present a complete formulation of the optimization problem that considers routing requirements for control and data plane communications. Simulation results confirm that the proposed solution enables the achievement of significant energy savings.

Delay-Sensitive Optimization Models and Distributed Routing Algorithms for Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks

Communication disruptions caused by mobility in wireless sensor networks introduce undesired delays which affect the network performance in delay sensitive applications in MWSN. In order to study the negative effects caused by mobility, we propose two mathematical models to find the minimum cost path between a source node and a destination node considering the nodes position changes across time. Our mathematical models consider the usage of buffers in the nodes to represent the fact of storing a message if there is not an appropriate forwarding node for transmitting it. In order to contrast our mathematical models results we have designed two kinds of algorithms: the first one takes advantage of the closest neighbours to the destination node in order to reach it as fast as possible from the source node. The second one simply reaches the destination node if a neighbour node is precisely the destination node. Finally, we compare the delay performance of these algorithms against our mathematical models to show how efficient they are for reaching a destination node. This paper is an extension of [10].a The mathematical model proposed in [10] is improved by adding two new binary variables with the aim of make it more readable and compact mathematically. This means a post-processing algorithm is added only for evaluating if a solution is at the first network state.

HDEER: A Distributed Routing Scheme for Energy-Efficient Networking

The proliferation of new online Internet services has substantially increased the energy consumption in wired networks, which has become a critical issue for Internet service providers. In this paper, we target the network-wide energy-saving problem by leveraging speed scaling as the energy-saving strategy. We propose a distributed routing scheme–HDEER–to improve network energy efficiency in a distributed manner without significantly compromising traffic delay. HDEER is a two-stage routing scheme where a simple distributed multipath finding algorithm is firstly performed to guarantee loop-free routing, and then a distributed routing algorithm is executed for energy-efficient routing in each node among the multiple loop-free paths. We conduct extensive experiments on the NS3 simulator and simulations with real network topologies in different scales under different traffic scenarios. Experiment results show that HDEER can reduce network energy consumption with a fair tradeoff between network energy consumption and traffic delay.

A New Data Transmission Strategy in Mobile D2D Networks --- Deterministic, Greedy, or Planned Opportunistic Routing?

In this paper, we study the problem of delay-constrained data transmission in mobile opportunistic device-to-device networks. In contrast to the deterministic or greedy single-copy single-path (SCSP) and multicopy multipath (MCMP) routing schemes that have been discussed in the literature, we develop a planned opportunistic routing scheme that aims to determine the optimal single-copy multipath (SCMP) transmission strategy that satisfies the delay requirement and, at the same time, minimizes communication cost. We first address the unicast by formulating the optimization problem and developing a distributed routing algorithm under practical network settings. Then, we explore optimal multicast strategies based on the SCMP transmissions. We implement the proposed algorithms on Android tablets and carry out extensive experiments, each with 25 nodes, for a period of two weeks. Moreover, we extract the algorithm codes from our prototype and run simulations based on the Haggle trace to study performance trends under various network settings. The experimental and simulation results show that the proposed protocols achieve significant performance gain in comparison with their counterparts based on SCSP and MCMP transmissions.

A Framework for Evaluating the Best Achievable Performance by Distributed Lifetime-Efficient Routing Schemes in Wireless Sensor Networks

This paper is concerned with energy-efficient routing in wireless sensor networks. Most of the existing routing schemes assign energy-related costs to network links and obtain the shortest paths for the nodes to balance the flowing traffic within the network and increase its lifetime. However, the optimal link cost values and the maximum achievable lifetime are not known for the majority of the existing schemes. A framework is provided in this work to analytically derive the best achievable performance that can be obtained by any distributed routing algorithm based on the shortest-path approach. Given a network configuration and an energy consumption model, the presented framework provides the optimal link cost assignment which yields the maximum lifetime in a distributed shortest-path routing strategy. The results are extended to the case of variable link cost assignment as well. A heuristic algorithm is also developed to obtain approximate solutions to the best performance problem with limited computational complexity. In particular, the proposed framework provides the optimal route selection as a benchmark to evaluate the energy efficiency of existing routing algorithms.

Experimental Analysis of Distributed Routing Algorithms in Ad Hoc Mobile Networks

Wireless networks can be classified in two types: infrastructured wireless networks and infrastructureless (ad hoc) wireless networks. Ad hoc networks are characterized by the need for efficient routing protocols. According to previous research, the Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) routing protocol and the Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol are two good representatives for each routing protocol category, Table-Driven category and On Demand category respectively. This paper analyses via simulation their performance with respect to the pause time of nodes movement. We find which routing protocol is appropriate for certain network conditions. When the nodes move continually then AODV seems to be better than DSDV. When nodes stay unmoving for a long time then DSDV is preferable.

An Energy Efficiency Distributed Routing Algorithm based on HAC Clustering Method for WSNs

The main objectives of WSNs are to reduce the consumption of energy in its application. The optimistic way of using battery may increase the life time of sensor nodes and it helps improve the performance of the WSNs. To achieve this, in this paper proposed a new hierarchical routing algorithm with high energy efficiency named EECA which is constructed cluster by using distance and residual energy. For cluster construction, first step for electing a cluster head. For this, calculating distance and residual energy of all nodes in a one hop neighbor which helps to select cluster head by using CH rotation. From those results, new CH would be elected. The performance of EECA is compared with AODV protocol by using NS2 simulator. The simulation results disclose that EECA outperform than AODV in energy efficiency, delay and packet delivery ratio.

Interconnection Networks of Degree Three Obtained by Pruning Two-Dimensional Tori

We study an interconnection network that we call <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$3Torus(m,n)$</tex> </formula> obtained by pruning the <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$4m \times 4n$</tex> </formula> torus (of links) so that the resulting network is regular of degree 3. We show that <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$3Torus(m,n)$</tex> </formula> retains many of the useful properties of tori (although, of course, there is a price to be paid due to the reduction in links). In particular, we show that <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$3Torus(m,n)$</tex> </formula> is node-symmetric; we establish closed-form expressions on the length of a shortest path joining any two nodes of the network; we calculate the diameter precisely; we obtain an upper bound on the average inter-node distance; we develop an optimal distributed routing algorithm; we prove that <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$3Torus(m,n)$</tex> </formula> has connectivity 3 and is Hamiltonian; we obtain a precise expression for (an upper bound on) the wide-diameter; and we derive optimal one-to-all broadcast and personalized one-to-all broadcast algorithms under both a one-port and all-port communication model. We also undertake a preliminary performance evaluation of our routing algorithm. In summary, we find that <formula formulatype="inline" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex Notation="TeX">$3Torus(m,n)$</tex> </formula> compares very favourably with tori.

A NEW DISTRIBUTED LOCATION-BASED ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

Searching and routing procedures are important in order to ensure communication in wireless sensor networks (WSN). Although naive flooding-based searching is simple to implement, it costs a high number of message transmissions and results in high energy consumption. In this study, we propose a new distributed location-based routing algorithm for WSN. Our goal was to decrease the number of message transmissions and to increase coverage by constructing relay zones. Directed broadcast, relay zone, and broadcast suppression constitute the backbone of our algorithm. We compared our algorithm with a flooding-based approach, and saw that our algorithm performs much better for several parameters.

A novel multicast routing method with minimum transmission for WSN of cloud computing service

As we know, multicast communication of industrial application is an effective way to save energy, bandwidth, cost and other resources in wireless sensor networks (WSN); a novel multicast routing method with minimum transmission for WSN of Industrial application is presented in this paper. We analyze the causes of uncertain information in WSN of Industrial application due to random load, information fusion or other impact factors. In terms of these random cases, we establish a transmission model of industrial application and present a new heuristic distributed minimum transmission multicast routing algorithm for WSN. Using the offset back-off scheme and taking advantage of the broadcast characteristic of wireless communication, our algorithm chooses the forwarding routes which can connect more multicast receivers. We conduct extensive evaluations to study the performance of the proposed algorithm and compare it with the existing methods. Simulation results demonstrate that our method effectively improves the efficiency of multicast routing; the advantage and novelty of the approach suggested is in saving energy by minimizing bandwidth, delay and the number of transmissions.

Deadlock free routing algorithm for minimizing congestion in a Hamiltonian connected recursive 3D-NoCs

Network on Chip (NoC) has been proposed as a solution for addressing the challenges in System on Chip (SoC) design. Designing a topology and its routing schemes are vital problems in a NoC. One of the major challenges that designers face today in 3D integration is how to route the data packets within a layer and across the layers in a scalable and efficient manner. In any 3D topology, minimizing the amount of data packet transmissions during the routing is still an open problem. Any efficient traditional routing schemes should avoid deadlocks and minimize network congestion from a source node to a destination node.In this paper, we propose a 3D recursive hyper graph Hamiltonian connected network and we propose a deadlock free routing algorithm to minimize congestion in the network. We show that the proposed topology outperforms the topology presented by Dubois et al. (Elevator-First: a Dealock-free distributed routing algorithm for vertically partially connected 3d-Nocs, IEEE Trans. Comput. 62(3) (2013) 609–615) [1] with respect to average network latency. Also, we analysis the delay bound of the switches for the proposed topology and 3D Partially connected Mesh Topology (PMT) and conclude that our topology performs better than 3D PMT.

Synergy routing and dynamic spectrum allocation in multi‐hop cognitive radio networks

To maximise spectrum efficiency and channel capacity, both unused (white) and underused (grey) spectral regions need to be exploited. The authors propose a distributed and localised algorithm for joint opportunistic routing and spectrum allocation for multi-hop cognitive radio networks, and design a synergy routing, a utility-based routing scheme that achieves synergistic cognitive radio benefits of overlay and underlay techniques and simultaneously maximises spectrum efficiency. The synergy routing opportunistically calculates the next hop according to the spectrum dynamics and residual energy of candidate relays and harvests the benefits from the cooperation of underlay and overlay spectrum. Simulation results indicate that our synergy prototype improves delay and throughput performance, while maintaining the autonomy and heterogeneity of individual underlay and overlay networks.

On the packet loss overhead in buffer-limited ad hoc networks

This paper focuses on the routing overhead analysis in ad hoc networks. Available work in this research field considered the infinite buffer scenario, so that buffer overflow will never occur. Obviously, in realistic ad hoc networks, the node buffer size is strictly bounded, which leads to unavoidable packet loss. Once a packet is dropped by a relay node, the bandwidth consumption for the previous transmission is actually wasted. We define the extra wasted bandwidth as the packet loss (PL) overhead. A theoretical analysis framework based on G/G/1/K queuing model is provided, to estimate the PL overhead for any specific routing protocols. Then, with this framework, we propose a distributed routing algorithm termed as novel load-balancing cognitive routing (NLBCR). The OPNET network simulator is further conducted to compare the performance among the NLBCR, AODV and CRP. The results indicate that NLBCR can reduce routing overhead to a considerable extent, as well as improve the network throughput and decrease the end-to-end delay.

An energy‐efficient utility‐based distributed data routing scheme for heterogenous sensor networks

AbstractA utility‐based distributed data routing algorithm is proposed and evaluated for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks. It is energy efficient and is based on a game‐theoretic heuristic load‐balancing approach. It runs on a hierarchical graph arranged as a tree with parents and children. Sensor nodes are considered heterogeneous in terms of their generated traffic, residual energy and data transmission rate and the bandwidth they provide to their children for communication. The proposed method generates a data routing tree in which child nodes are joined to parent nodes in an energy‐efficient way. The principles of the Stackelberg game, in which parents as leaders and children as followers, are used to support the distributive nature of sensor networks. In this context, parents behave cooperatively and help other parents to adjust their loads, while children act selfishly. Simulation results indicate the proposed method can produce on average more load‐balanced trees, resulting in over 30% longer network lifetime compared with the cumulative algorithm proposed in the literature. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Scalable $\epsilon$-Optimal Decision-Making and Stochastic Routing in Large Networks via Distributed Supervision of Probabilistic Automata

A scalable distributed stochastic routing algorithm (GODDeS) is developed to effectively exploit high quality paths in lossy ad-hoc wireless environments, typically with a large number of nodes. The routing problem is modeled as an optimal control problem for a decentralized Markov decision process via a probabilistic local broadcast model, with links characterized by locally known or estimated drop probabilities that either remain constant on average or change slowly. Equivalence of this optimization problem to that of performance maximization of probabilistic automata allows us to effectively apply the theory of quantitative measures of probabilistic regular languages, and design a distributed, highly efficient, scalable, and stationary routing policy that very nearly minimizes source-to-sink drop probabilities across the network. Theoretical results provide rigorous guarantees on global performance, showing that the algorithm achieves near-global optimality in polynomial time, and worst case asymptotic...

Dynamic distributed unicast routing: optimal incremental paths

Developing new mathematical frameworks such as distributed dynamic routing algorithms for constructing optimal incremental paths from a node to another node is an important challenge in data communication networks. These new algorithms can model network resources optimally and increase network performances. A bundle of single routes in a current communication path, which starts from a source node and ends to a destination node, can consist of several successive nodes and links. The Incremental term emphasizes that the number of routes (links and nodes) in a current path can change so that achieving more data rate and optimal efficiency in the network. In this paper, our problem is to add/omit some routes consisting of some nodes and links to/from the current unicast path dynamically and optimally. We call this problem the Optimal Dynamic Distributed Unicast Routing (ODDUR) problem and it is a NP-complete problem. This problem can be formulated as a new type of Linear Programming Problem (LPP) for finding a minimum cost multichannel unicast path, which this path will minimize end-to-end delay and bandwidth consumption along the routes from the source node to the destination node. In this paper, at first a new mathematical framework will be constructed and then this framework will propose the new optimal dynamic distributed unicast routing algorithm for solving our LPP problem. This algorithm will compute an optimal solution for our LPP based on the simplex method and postoptimality computations and will reduce computations and consumed time. Simulation results will show that our new algorithm is more efficient than other available algorithms in terms of utilization of bandwidths and data rate.