Background: This study presents a preliminary evaluation of a six-day outpatient psychotherapeutic training based on the Duc in Altum Therapy (DIAT) approach, examining its effectiveness in reducing symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress among adults. Given the growing demand for brief, effective mental health interventions, this format aims to provide intensive support within a condensed timeframe. Methods: The intervention consisted of supportive and experiential group therapy delivered over six days and included 109 participants. Outcomes were assessed at three time points—pre-intervention, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up—using the Direct Behavior Rating Scale Items, the Brief Screen for Depression (BSD), and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). Results: Participants reported lower levels of anxiety (B = −1.435, p < 0.0001), depression (B = −0.717, p < 0.001), and stress (B = −1.882, p < 0.001) after training, reflecting statistically significant within-group changes. These improvements were maintained at the three-month follow-up. Conclusions: Although the absence of a control group limits causal inference, the findings provide preliminary support for the effectiveness of DIAT as a brief psychotherapeutic intervention. Participants reported lower levels of anxiety, depression, and stress after the training, reflecting statistically significant within-group changes. These improvements were maintained at the three-month follow-up.

In this study, we examined the effects of Feel Your Best Self (FYBS) on classwide behavior. FYBS offers a flexible toolkit for teaching emotion regulation strategies that can be integrated into existing elementary classroom routines. Using an alternating treatment single case design, we investigated the effects of FYBS mini-lessons delivered during morning meeting compared to business-as-usual morning meeting on classwide behaviors in a kindergarten classroom. Results of systematic direct observation by external observers supported higher academic engagement and positive affect, and somewhat lower disruptive behavior, in the instructional period following morning meeting with FYBS mini-lessons. Results from direct behavior ratings completed by the classroom teacher were not as clear, with no differences noted for classwide frustration tolerance or flexibility. FYBS mini-lessons were delivered as intended and perceived as highly usable by the teacher. This study provides initial evidence that FYBS can be used to promote desirable classroom behavior and be integrated into existing classroom routines such as morning meetings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for Do You See What I See? Mitigating Rater Effects on Direct Behavior Ratings–Multi-Item Scales (DBR-MIS) Through Training and Statistical Adjustment

Abstract Universal prevention efforts in schools have been advocated as a way to address substantial challenges in access to social, emotional, and behavioral supports, but schools often struggle to deliver these services effectively. Feel Your Best Self (FYBS) was developed as one solution by offering a flexible, easy-to-use way for elementary teachers to integrate learning simple emotion-coping strategies. Using an alternating treatment design, we investigate the effects of FYBS mini-lessons delivered during Morning Meeting on class-wide behavior compared to business-as-usual Morning Meeting in a kindergarten classroom. Systematic direct observation and Direct Behavior Ratings of class-wide behaviors were used as outcomes. Results suggest increased class-wide academic engagement and positive affect in the instructional period following FYBS mini-lessons, as well as decreased disruptive behavior. No differences were found in class-wide frustration tolerance or flexibility. FYBS mini-lessons were perceived as highly usable by the teacher. This study provides initial evidence that FYBS can be used to promote emotion skills and positive classroom behavior and can be integrated into existing classroom routines such as Morning Meetings.

Dependability of individualized Direct Behavior Rating Multi-Item Scales (DBR-MIS) for academic enablers

This study used a single-case design to investigate the effectiveness of Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRC) in addressing elementary school children’s disruptive behavior. The study, conducted in a German elementary school, involved ten second-grade students identified by their teachers as exhibiting disruptive behaviors. The procedures included training teachers in the implementation of DBRC, setting specific behavioral goals for each student, and using the Direct Behavior Rating (DBR) to assess General Disruptive Behavior (GDB) and Specific Goal Behavior (SGB). The DBRC was implemented over 120 days, with daily monitoring and feedback provided to students. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in both variables. The data analysis was conducted using regression-based analyses and the Non-Overlap of All Pairs (NAP). This study confirms the effectiveness of DBRC in mitigating disruptive behaviors and achieving specific behavioral goals, thereby contributing valuable insights into the application of this evidence-based intervention within the German elementary school system. It also highlights the utility of the single-case design in educational research.

Schools have increasingly relied on paraeducators in elementary settings to help address student needs. Research demonstrates that simple prevention strategies, like active supervision (e.g., moving, scanning, interacting), can reduce problem behavior in areas where paraeducators are assigned; however, less is known about how to best support paraeducators in implementing these practices. For this study, four paraeducators participated in a brief training on recess active supervision and then engaged in self-management by filling out a checklist and direct behavior ratings (DBRs). Using a multiple baseline across participants design, we introduced the intervention to participants in a randomly assigned order and examined effects, fidelity, and social validity. Results suggest that training and self-management may lead to changes in the interacting behavior of active supervision at recess with more frequent prompting and praising by the paraeducators. Despite limitations, this exploratory study has implications for schools and researchers.

This study examines the effectiveness of an app-based self-monitoring intervention to support attention in students with learning difficulties. Two quantitative single-case studies were conducted in special education school settings. Study 1 used an AB design in which 12 seventh-grade students with learning difficulties were assessed for attentional behavior during a math exercise by systematic observation using the Munich Attention Inventory with five-second time sampling by two raters. Study 2 used a multiple baseline design to assess the attentional behavior of three students with combined learning and attention difficulties during a math exercise by systematic observation using Direct Behavior Rating to measure on-task and off-task behavior. Both studies also used a competency screening to elicit teacher ratings of change in attention behavior in a pre-post measurement. The results indicate that the app-based self-monitoring interventions were successful, highlighting the potential of app-based self-monitoring to support students with learning and attention difficulties. In particular, the development of personalized self-monitoring interventions holds promising potential for improving learning outcomes in this target group.

Behavior specific praise (BSP) is widely regarded as an evidence-based classroom management strategy, with decades of research supporting its use. However, relatively few studies have examined the effect of BSP as a targeted intervention strategy, particularly for traditionally underrepresented students. The present study evaluated the utility of BSP as an individual behavior management strategy for diverse students in the context of a high-need educational setting. Specifically, it examined the effects of BSP on teacher’s ratings of academically engaged and disruptive behavior in the classroom using Direct Behavior Ratings–Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS). A concurrent multiple baseline design was implemented with three racially/ethnically minoritized (REM) target students across one third and one fourth grade classroom. Results demonstrated that teachers’ estimated rates of BSP delivered to target students were successfully increased to a criterion level of six per hour following delivery of a multicomponent training package, with high levels of treatment integrity. All participating students demonstrated statistically significant improvements in behavior, although visual analysis suggested only one clear demonstration and one replication of effect. Social validity data revealed high levels of teacher acceptability and willingness to implement the BSP strategy, with mixed perceptions from students. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Formative behavioral assessment across eight constructs: Dependability of direct behavior ratings and formative behavior rating measures

IntroductionThe prevalence of disruptive behavior is increasing worldwide, affecting the learning process and classroom climate, teacher–student relationships, and peer interactions. Disruptive behavior in childhood can have detrimental effects on a child’s long-term growth and may predict similar behavior in adolescence and adulthood. Thus, it is not only contemporary education and school research that are concerned with addressing the issues of teacher workload reduction and improvement of students’ learning environment, but it is also a socially relevant issue. The Multi-tiered Systems of Supports (MTSS) effectively mitigates some of these challenges in the education system and is recognized as a successful framework.MethodsTherefore, this single-case study examined the first two tiers of an MTSS developed in Germany (Multimo) to determine the impact of its implementation on 32 students with disruptive behavior. The first hypothesis propose that the implementation of Tier 1 can effectively decrease disruptive behavior among all students and the second one that assigning students to Tier 2 can provide an additional reduction in disruptive behavior. Data analysis included multilevel analyses with piecewise-multilevel models and the overlap index, the Nonoverlap of All Pairs, based on teachers’ direct behavior rating. All analyses focused exclusively on the outcome variable of disruptive behavior, which was estimated based on teachers’ daily behavior ratings.ResultsThe results of the study showed a significant reduction of disruptive behavior in elementary school students at Tier 1. Disruptive behavior decreased at Tier 2 as well but did not show a significant change compared with Tier 1.DiscussionThe study concludes that in the context of an MTSS, the Good Behavior Game and Daily Behavior Report Card can be used together.

Abstract Systematic direct observations (SDOs) and behavior rating scales are integral to multimethod behavioral assessment approaches. The present study investigated the convergent validity of the Behavior Observation of Students in Schools (BOSS) form, a widely utilized SDO system, with the most frequently used teacher rating scales in schools, the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, Third Edition (BASC‐3) and the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System, third edition (BESS‐3). Specifically, the present study compared independent observer data collection of student on‐task and disruptive behaviors on the BOSS with teachers' ratings of behavioral problems on the BASC‐3 and BESS‐3. Data come from a sample of 136 teachers and 349 students with or at risk of disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs). Pearson correlations were computed between BOSS and teacher ratings on the BASC‐3 and BESS‐3. Findings demonstrated significant, small to moderate correlations. Results indicate evidence of convergent validity for the BOSS and BASC3 assessments and highlight multimethod behavioral assessment's utility in supporting students with or at risk of DBDs.

The purpose of this study was to examine the accuracy of function-based decisions made in consideration of scores from the Intervention Selection Profile-Function (ISP-Function), a tool founded upon direct behavior rating (DBR) methodology. The ISP-Function is designed to be a brief measure, given the need for efficient and low-resource assessments in schools. Data from a previous investigation were used to create data reports for each of 34 elementary students with a history of exhibiting disruptive behavior in the classroom. The first report summarized ISP-Function data that the student's classroom teacher collected. The second report was representative of more typical functional behavior assessment (FBA), summarizing data collected via a functional assessment interview with the teacher, as well as systematic direct observation data. Nine school psychologists conducted blind reviews of these reports and derived decisions regarding the function of each student's behavior (e.g., adult attention or escape/avoidance). Gwet's agreement coefficients were statistically significant and suggested fair to almost perfect correspondence between ISP-Function and FBA reports. Limitations and implications for practice are discussed herein. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Although originally conceived of as a marriage of direct behavioral observation and indirect behavior rating scales, recent research has indicated that Direct Behavior Ratings (DBRs) are affected by rater idiosyncrasies (rater effects) similar to other indirect forms of behavioral assessment. Most of this research has been conducted using generalizability theory (GT), yet another approach, many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM), has recently been utilized to illuminate the previously opaque nature of these rater idiosyncrasies. The purpose of this study was to utilize both approaches (GT and MFRM) to consider rater effects with 126 second- through fifth-grade students who were rated on two DBR-Multi-Item Scales by four raters (22 of these ratings were fully crossed). Results indicated the presence of rater effects and revealed nuances about their nature, including showing differences across construct domains, identifying items that are potentially more susceptible to rater effects than others, and isolating specific raters who appear to have been more susceptible to rater effects than other raters. These findings further indicate the indirect nature of DBRs and offer potential avenues for addressing and ameliorating rater effects in research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Considering Equity of Evidence: Examining Teachers’ Justifications for Direct Behavior Rating Scale Scores

Supplemental Material for Using Many-Facet Rasch Measurement and Generalizability Theory to Explore Rater Effects for Direct Behavior Rating–Multi-Item Scales

The current study examined the impact of the Good Behavior Game (GBG) on the academic engagement (AE) and disruptive behavior (DB) of at-risk students’ in a German inclusive primary school sample using behavioral progress monitoring. A multiple baseline design across participants was employed to evaluate the effects of the GBG on 35 primary school students in seven classrooms from grade 1 to 3 (Mage = 8.01 years, SDage = 0.81 years). The implementation of the GBG was randomly staggered by 2 weeks across classrooms. Teacher-completed Direct Behavior Rating (DBR) was applied to measure AE and DB. We used piecewise regression and a multilevel extension to estimate the individual case-specific treatment effects as well as the generalized effects across cases. Piecewise regressions for each case showed significant immediate treatment effects for the majority of participants (82.86%) for one or both outcome measures. The multilevel approach revealed that the GBG improved at-risk students’ classroom behaviors generally with a significant immediate treatment effect across cases (for AE, B = 0.74, p &amp;lt; 0.001; for DB, B = –1.29, p &amp;lt; 0.001). The moderation between intervention effectiveness and teacher ratings of students’ risks for externalizing psychosocial problems was significant for DB (B = –0.07, p = 0.047) but not for AE. Findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that the GBG is an appropriate classroom-based intervention for at-risk students and expand the literature regarding differential effects for affected students. In addition, the study supports the relevance of behavioral progress monitoring and data-based decision-making in inclusive schools in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the GBG and, if necessary, to modify the intervention for individual students or the whole group.

Abstract This study reports on the results of a pilot study designed to evaluate the Resilience Education Program (REP): a brief Tier 2 intervention that includes small‐group cognitive‐behavioral instruction, paired with a modified check‐in/check‐out procedure. Three elementary school students demonstrating early indicators of internalizing behavior concerns participated in the current intervention. A multiple‐baseline single‐case design was used to evaluate intervention effects. Outcome data corresponded to teacher‐collected direct behavior rating data, which were specific to each student's particular internalizing concerns (e.g., negative affect, withdrawal) and were collected on a daily basis during times when these behaviors were most problematic. Visual analysis and effect size estimates were used in evaluating intervention effects relative to baseline conditions for each student. Results indicated REP yielded a moderate intervention effect for two out of three students (Tau‐U = 0.72 and 0.68, respectively), each of whom exhibited an immediate reduction in internalizing behavior. Both students also demonstrated an absence of negative behaviors in the maintenance phase. Findings for the third student were obfuscated by low behavioral rates during baseline. Following the intervention, educators rated REP as a socially valid intervention. Limitations of this study and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

A multiple baseline design across four teachers was used to investigate the effects of an online Direct Behavior Rating (DBR) training module on rater accuracy of academic engagement, respect, and disruptive behavior. Rater accuracy was examined by comparing Direct Behavior Rating-Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) completed by classroom teachers to systematic direct observation. Teacher acceptability of DBR-SIS was also investigated. Teachers rated the use of DBR-SIS as a formative evaluation tool favorably. Rater accuracy of DBR-SIS was generally higher after teachers completed the online training module. However, a visual analysis of the data revealed no clear impact of the online training. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Abstract Interventions that target on‐task behavior are essential, as on‐task behavior is linked to the amount of learning that occurs in a classroom. On‐Task in a Box is a manualized intervention to increase on‐task behavior that utilizes video modeling and self‐monitoring in conjunction with group contingencies. The current study evaluated the effects of the On‐Task in a Box intervention on student on‐task behavior and work completion when implemented as a classwide intervention. A multiple probe design across three elementary classrooms was utilized. All three classrooms demonstrated increases in the level of classwide on‐task behavior as measured through direct observation, but mixed results were found for work completion, measured by teacher direct behavior ratings. Teachers generally rated the intervention as effective and relatively easy to implement.