Diplomatic Engagement Research Articles

Prioritized Intermediate Zone: China’s New Third Worldism in the Middle East

China has a long-standing diplomatic tradition rooted in Third Worldism. This ideological stance, centered on anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism, cultivated a sense of shared experiences and mutual understanding among late-developing nations throughout the twentieth century. The Middle East holds a special place in the Third World because of the foundational roles played by these socio-political formations in setting key organizations. However, the Middle East and other intermediate zones in the Global South have been relatively neglected in the post-Cold War era. More recently, China has returned to Mao Zedong’s view of the Middle East as a natural intermediate zone amid collective pressure from Western countries. This article aims to explore why China favors the Middle East as an intermediate zone and elucidates its efforts to approach the Middle East through various means, including economic initiatives, as well as political and diplomatic engagements. Despite its achievements in fostering a non-aligned stance within the region, China has encountered obstacles in fully implementing this novel approach to Third Worldism in the Middle East. By examining Sino-Middle Eastern relations through the lens of Third Worldism, this article seeks to contribute to debates about Sino-Arab relations and South–South cooperation.

Pakistan Foreign Policy Dynamics: Exploring The Interplay of CPEC, Energy Security, Environmental Concerns and Diplomatic Engagements

Pakistan's foreign policy dynamics reflect in its strategic priorities, geopolitical challenges, and developing international relations. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a cornerstone of Pakistan's economic and strategic policy. It aims to improve economy, infrastructure, energy security, and connectivity with the region. The study explores the complex Pakistan's foreign policy dynamics, focusing on the interplay between the (CPEC), energy security, environmental concerns, and diplomatic engagement. A mixed-method approach was used including a literature review, quantitative surveys questioners of 100 respondents from different disciples and in-depth interviews of 25 respondents with university teachers, foreign policy analysts, and environmental experts. The results of the study disclose that CPEC serves as a catalyst for economic growth and regional connectivity. Energy security arises as a key issue of foreign policy, developing efforts to diversify energy sources and reduce dependency on energy imports. However, economic development and environmental concerns remains a challenge. Diplomatic engagement are vital to secure international cooperation and for the promotion regional stability, with achievement in trade and foreign direct investment for Pakistan. The study analyses the multidimensional nature of Pakistan’s foreign policy, CPEC economic benefits, energy security, environmental concerns and opportunities secure its needs. Finally, the study suggests possible policy measures to mitigate challenges faced by economy, energy, environmental sector and foreign policy

TTP Factor in Pak-Afghan Relations in The Taliban Era

The Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has long been a pivotal yet contentious element in the complex relationship between Pakistan and Afghanistan. With the Taliban’s resurgence in Afghanistan in August 2021, the dynamics of Pak-Afghan relations have undergone a significant transformation, heavily influenced by the presence and activities of the TTP. This research investigates the multifaceted role of the TTP as a destabilizing force in bilateral ties, particularly in the context of the Taliban’s ideological and operational linkages with the group. The study argues that the Afghan Taliban’s tacit support—or at least reluctance to curb TTP operations—has intensified security challenges for Pakistan, leading to a surge in cross-border militancy and complicating counterterrorism efforts. By examining official policy statements, security reports, and insurgent activities, this paper assesses how the TTP’s resurgence has strained diplomatic engagements between Islamabad and Kabul. It highlights Pakistan’s concerns over alleged safe havens for TTP militants in Afghanistan, as well as the implications of the group’s attacks on Pakistan’s internal security and regional stability. Furthermore, the study evaluates the effectiveness of Pakistan’s counterterrorism strategies and the broader geopolitical ramifications of the TTP’s presence in the region. Ultimately, this research underscores that the TTP remains a critical impediment to sustainable cooperation between Pakistan and Afghanistan in the Taliban era. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how non-state actors influence interstate relations in conflict-prone regions, offering insights into the challenges of counterterrorism, bilateral trust-building, and regional security management.

Education Diplomacy: Key Soft Power in Nepal-Australia Relations

Many of the prospective students of Nepal in their pursuit of higher education choose colleges and universities in rich industrialized countries in Europe and North America. In recent decades, students equally prefer Australia and New Zealand. By analyzing the network environment of educational exchange and student migration, this study seeks to shed light on the dynamics and intricacies of diplomatic engagement in Nepal-Australia relations. In fact, education diplomacy is a strategic tool that utilizes educational exchanges, collaborations, and partnerships to foster bilateral relations. It has emerged as a crucial component of soft power in Nepal-Australia relations as it exerting influence to rank Nepal the third largest international student community in Australia. Using qualitative approach based on empirical secondary data, this paper answers the question of how education diplomacy of Nepal-Australia maintains, advances, and become successful to robust bilateral relations. In addition, aspects of Nepal’s soft power resources, instruments, receptions and outcomes linked to education diplomacy are studied. For the understanding of the research findings the soft power theories and small states perspectives in bilateral relations with soft power superpower Australia and small power Nepal are used critically. Findings suggests that the education diplomacy remains as key instrument of soft power that leverage the scholar potentialities, population dividend, and thirst of quality education of small power like Nepal in bilateral relations with soft power superpowers like Australia. This paper explores the status of education diplomacy as soft power of Nepal in Nepal-Australia relations.

The Impact of U.S.–China Strategic Competition in the Mekong Sub-region on Vietnam’s National Interests

Purpose: This article aims to examine the strategic competition between the United States and China in the Mekong subregion from 2009 to 2024, focusing specifically on its implications for Vietnam. Methodology: As the largest downstream nation in the Mekong River basin, Vietnam is uniquely positioned as both highly vulnerable to upstream actions and influential within regional diplomacy. The analysis employs a multi-dimensional analytical framework to assess contrasting strategies by the U.S. and China. It examines institutional engagement, infrastructure investment, and environmental diplomacy, focusing specifically on mechanisms such as the Mekong–U.S. Partnership and Lancang–Mekong Cooperation. Findings: The study finds that the United States has emphasized transparency, multilateralism, and sustainable development through initiatives like the Mekong–U.S. Partnership. In contrast, China has strategically projected influence through the Lancang–Mekong Cooperation, primarily by using dam construction, concessional loans, and strategic political communication. Vietnam, navigating this competition, has effectively leveraged both frameworks to advance its national interests but continues to confront critical challenges regarding water security, institutional coordination, and maintaining geopolitical equilibrium. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The article recommends that Vietnam pursue strategic policies aimed at enhancing its autonomy, bolstering environmental resilience, and strengthening its regional leadership role. These include proactive diplomatic engagement, improved institutional coherence, and careful balancing of relationships with both major powers.

The Future of Somalia’s Foreign Relations in a Multipolar World

This investigates the complexities of Somalia's foreign relations within the framework of an increasingly multipolar global landscape, focusing on the vital challenge of balancing the influences of emerging global powers against the imperative of maintaining national sovereignty and stability. Utilizing both qualitative and quantitative data, the research examines Somalia's diplomatic engagements, trade agreements, and geopolitical strategies involving key international actors. The findings reveal that Somalia's foreign policy can be enhanced by strategically leveraging partnerships with multiple global powers, particularly China, the United States, and regional stakeholders, thereby allowing for more resilient economic and political frameworks. Additionally, the research underscores the critical significance of these diplomatic strategies in fostering healthcare development, highlighting that sustained foreign investment and international cooperation are essential for addressing Somalia’s pressing health challenges. The implications of this study extend beyond diplomatic theory, suggesting that Somalia's adept navigation of its foreign relations can lead to enhanced healthcare delivery systems, improved public health outcomes, and greater overall stability. By establishing a model for other nations in similar geopolitical contexts, the research contributes valuable insights into the intersection of international relations and healthcare, advocating for policy frameworks that prioritize both diplomatic engagement and the advancement of national health priorities.

THE ROLE OF ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY IN STRENGTHENING U.S.-FRANCOPHONE AFRICA BUSINESS RELATIONS

Africa is not prioritized in the U.S. diplomatic strategy and engagement, but with an increasing population and substantial essential natural resources, countries, and global forces are becoming more deliberate about their relations with Africa. It has become necessary for the United States to redefine its approach to Africa, with a particular emphasis on Francophone Africa. This review examines the various initiatives from different U.S. administrations, the challenges from within and outside the U.S., to the success and longevity of these initiatives. China has made inroads into critical sectors of the economies of some Francophone countries by identifying challenges in the provision of critical infrastructure and offering solutions to these regimes. The review recommends a focused Africa agenda, differentiation of U.S. strategy from the historical influences of France, full utilization of the potential of AfCFTA, and high-level diplomatic engagement as ways to revive its dwindling influence within the Francophone bloc. Keywords: Diplomatic, United States, Francophone Africa, Engagement

A “Tech First” Approach to Foreign Policy? The Three Meanings of Tech Diplomacy

ABSTRACTScholars have recently argued that international politics is plagued by instability as the world rapidly transitions from one crisis to another. This state of “Permacrisis,” or permanent crises between states, is driven by technological innovations which create new kinds of crises and drive competitions between adversarial states. It is amid the backdrop of “Permacrisis” that this article conceptualizes and defines the term tech diplomacy which has three meanings. First, tech diplomacy denotes a shift in how foreign ministries (MFAs) contend with the rapid development of new digital technologies. The article suggests that tech diplomacy constitutes a form of proactive digitalization in which diplomats foster networks with tech actors to prepare for future digital landscapes and map potential tech‐based challenges. Second, tech diplomacy refers to diplomats' growing need to manage tech‐related issues. In a digitally connected world, technologies have national, regional, and global ramifications necessitating diplomatic action. Finally, tech diplomacy denotes a “Tech First” approach to foreign policy in which tech‐based negotiations are viewed as a steppingstone towards diplomatic engagement between adversarial states. The article uses the case study of cryptocurrency regulation in the US and China to discuss the potential and the limitations of tech diplomacy.

Gender apartheid in education: the Taliban’s educational restrictions and their consequences for Afghan women and girls

ABSTRACT This article examines the impact of Taliban policies on women’s education in Afghanistan, focusing on the severe restrictions imposed since their return to power in 2021. Using a qualitative methodology, the study analyzes secondary data sources, including reports from human rights organizations, government documents, and educational statistics, to assess the implications of these restrictions. Findings reveal that the Taliban’s policies constitute gender apartheid and violate international human rights standards, causing significant setbacks in women’s educational achievements. The systematic denial of education has led to widespread mental health issues among Afghan women and girls, exacerbating anxiety, fear, and hopelessness. Moreover, these restrictions have profound socio-economic consequences, perpetuating cycles of poverty and hindering national development. The study underscores the urgent need for the international community to support Afghan women’s education through targeted policies, humanitarian aid, and diplomatic engagement with local women’s rights groups. Ultimately, access to education is crucial not only as a fundamental human right but also as a cornerstone for sustainable development and gender equality in Afghanistan. Continued advocacy and research are essential to understanding the long-term effects of educational denial and developing effective strategies for resistance and resilience among Afghan women.

Between the Headlines: A Comparative Study of Indian and International Television News Perspectives on the Pre-War India-Pakistan Tensions

This research paper offers a critical and in-depth examination of how television news channels in India and internationally framed, narrated, and presented the escalating tensions between India and Pakistan, particularly focusing on the volatile pre-war context surrounding the 2019 Pulwama-Balakot incident. The study is rooted in the theoretical framework of media framing and employs qualitative content analysis as its primary methodology to dissect the contrasting editorial strategies, linguistic features, emotional tones, and visual choices employed by both Indian and global broadcasters. The investigation seeks to understand how nationalistic fervor, geopolitical orientations, and varying degrees of editorial freedom contribute to the formation of media narratives during times of high-stakes international conflict. By comparing Indian television news coverage—typically characterized by heightened emotionality, patriotic rhetoric, and often aggressive posturing—with the more measured, diplomatically cautious, and globally contextualized reporting by international channels like BBC, CNN, and Al Jazeera, the study underscores fundamental divergences in tone, content, and perspective. It delves into the specific ways in which media houses cater to their respective audience expectations and national interests, revealing how these factors inevitably shape the way a conflict is portrayed. For Indian media, the emphasis tends to be on mobilizing public sentiment, reinforcing national unity, and echoing state narratives, whereas international media often strive for a more balanced, investigative, and detached portrayal aimed at global audiences. The study finds that Indian television news was more likely to use emotionally charged language, dramatic visuals, and overtly nationalistic messaging in its coverage of the Pulwama attack and India’s retaliatory airstrike in Balakot. In contrast, international media outlets prioritized diplomatic responses, questioned military claims more frequently, and provided broader regional and historical contexts. By analyzing the interplay between editorial decision-making and geopolitical positioning, the research reveals how domestic and international priorities—such as political climate, public opinion pressures, and strategic alliances—play a crucial role in constructing news narratives. It discusses how these diverging portrayals not only inform but also influence public opinion, diplomatic engagement, and policy formulation in both domestic and international arenas. Ultimately, this paper highlights the power of the media as an actor in international relations, not just a mirror of events. It emphasizes the need for critical media literacy and the importance of understanding the underlying motivations behind how news is framed—particularly in conflict zones where truth, perception, and influence can significantly diverge.

Improving Georgia's energy security through natural gas exports from Iran

Georgia’s energy security is increasingly vulnerable due to its reliance on Russian and Azerbaijani natural gas, exposing it to supply disruptions and geopolitical pressures. Iran, with the world’s second-largest natural gas reserves, offers a viable alternative to diversify Georgia’s energy mix. Despite U.S. and international sanctions on Iran’s energy sector, historical precedents—such as Iran’s emergency gas supply to Georgia in 2006—and innovative gas swap contracts, like the 2024 Turkmenistan deal, highlight the potential for energy cooperation. This article examines the strategic, economic, and diplomatic opportunities for Iran-Georgia collaboration, drawing on global examples of sanctions exemptions and academic literature to propose a framework for Georgia to secure Iranian gas imports legally. By leveraging regional infrastructure, diplomatic engagement, and creative trade mechanisms, Georgia can enhance its energy security, reduce dependence on dominant suppliers, and strengthen bilateral ties with Iran, contributing to regional stability in the South Caucasus.

Has India Shifted its Diplomacy toward Nepal? Analyzing Post-Blockade Relations

This paper examines how India and Nepal's diplomatic relationship has changed, especially in the aftermath of the 2015 blockade that negatively affected the two countries' relations. This paper critically investigates whether India's diplomatic efforts following the blockade represent a fundamental change in strategy or are merely a response to China's increasing might. The study explores important issues about the nature of India's diplomatic relations with Nepal using qualitative approaches, such as thematic analysis of primary and secondary data sources. In light of Nepal's expanding ties with China, this paper analyzes India's diplomatic change towards Nepal after the 2015 blockade, emphasizing its strategic adaptation to maintain regional supremacy. The study argues that India used economic incentives and diplomatic engagement to improve bilateral ties as part of its shift from a coercive to a "soft balancing" strategy. The convergence of neorealism and soft power in forming India-Nepal relations is highlighted in this paper, underscoring the necessity of ongoing communication to negotiate regional power dynamics successfully.

What Makes Diplomacy Successful?

Abstract How countries engage diplomatically with the rest of the world is at the heart of the work of ministries of foreign affairs (MFA s). In recent years, IOB – the Independent Evaluation Directorate of the Netherlands MFA – has conducted many evaluations that have addressed the country’s diplomatic engagement. These studies have yielded significant findings on what makes diplomatic engagement successful. This practitioner’s essay, with characteristics of a ‘positive evaluation’, provides an overview based on a review of recent IOB evaluations, a special case study and background interviews. The conclusion is that diplomatic success can be explained through a combination of seven factors: mission, capacity, commitment, teamwork, networking, timing and reputation.

IOC’s Diplomatic Engagements with the Chinese Olympic Committee: From Confrontation to Cooperation

IOC’s Diplomatic Engagements with the Chinese Olympic Committee: From Confrontation to Cooperation

VỀ CÁC SỨ ĐOÀN TRIỀU MẠC (VIỆT NAM) ĐI SỨ TRIỀU MINH (TRUNG QUỐC) (1527 – 1592)

After its establishment in 1527, the Mạc dynasty dispatched its first diplomatic mission to the Ming dynasty in 1528 to formally announce its throne accession and explain the delay in requesting investiture. Between this initial mission and the collapse of the Mạc in 1592, the court sent a total of 15 diplomatic missions to the Ming. These took place in the years 1528, 1538, 1540, 1542, 1543, 1544, 1545, 1548 (twice), 1575 (twice), 1576, 1580, 1584, and 1590. The missions served various diplomatic purposes, including beseeching investiture, offering tribute, expressing gratitude, reporting bereavement, and declaring surrender. Among these, beseeching investiture and offering tribute were the most central and recurrent objectives. Drawing upon primary materials from Vietnamese historiography, such as Complete Annals of Đại Việt, General History of Đại, Imperially Commissioned Comprehensive History of Vietnam, Encyclopedia of Institutions of Successive Dynasties and the Ming Shilu (Veritable Records of the Ming dynasty), this article offers a systematic analysis of the Mạc dynasty's diplomatic engagements with the Ming from 1527 to 1592. It focuses on key dimensions of these missions, including their frequency, objectives, internal organization, the backgrounds of the envoys, and the system of tribute and goods. In doing so, the article contributes to a deeper understanding of Vietnam–China diplomatic relations during the Mạc period, particularly as revealed through the practice of sending envoys.

BETWEEN MEDIATOR AMBITIONS AND REAL LEADERSHIP: FRANCE’S ROLE TO SUPPORT UKRAINE IN THE FACE OF GROWING U.S. ISOLATIONISM

The paper focuses on a systemic analysis of the trilateral interaction between France, the United States, and Ukraine amid the profound transformation of the international security environment following the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in 2022. At the core of the analysis is the evolving nature of Western support for Ukraine, shaped by the strategic reassessment of the United States’ global role and the growing determination of European states to operationalize the concept of strategic autonomy. The study examines the consequences of declining transatlantic cohesion for the redistribution of responsibility in guaranteeing European security, with particular emphasis on France’s increasing activity within both bilateral and multilateral support frameworks for Ukraine. French policy is acquiring a new systemic quality, combining diplomatic engagement, military-technical assistance, and economic cooperation, with a specific focus on joint defense production initiatives and strategic coordination within the EU framework. In parallel, the United States is experiencing rising domestic political polarisation, external policy inconsistency, and a tilt toward isolationism—all of which significantly affect allied strategic behaviour and drive a reconfiguration of responsibilities within the Western coalition. The socio-political dynamics in France reveal a growing public endorsement of support for Ukraine, coupled with a critical perception of the United States’ reliability as a long-term ally. The findings point to the emergence of a new trilateral configuration in which France increasingly assumes a stabilizing role within Europe’s security architecture, while the United States is perceived as a strategically unpredictable actor. For Ukraine, this shift necessitates a strategic recalibration toward diversified formats of partnership, intensified engagement with European actors, and a reconsideration of its foreign policy priorities in response to a dynamically evolving global order.

Influence of the US on Indo-Pak Relations: Shifts in Strategic Alliances

A significant instance of the United States' effect on the Indo-Pak relation has led to setting course of South Asia as a region where complicated political, military and economic exchanges are the order of the day. This particular paper is an inquest into the shape of the U.S. influence over the bilateral relations between India and Pakistan, taking special notice of such milestones as the Cold War era, the post-9/11 times, and the latest growth of Indo-U.S. relations. Through an examination of U.S. policy decisions, the author suggests there is a similarity between the United States' foreign policy and its diplomatic engagements, military collaboration, and economic policies, the United States of America is shown to have always maintained a balance in its relations with both countries besides being in efforts to ease the tensions and conflicts that are in one way or another the characteristics of their interactions all through. The research also explains how U.S. influence has influenced the problems of securing the region, especially following positions on issues such as nuclear proliferation, the fight against terrorism, and the implementation of economic cooperation. The thesis here is a comprehensive piece of work in which the author aims at understanding and interpreting the emerging strategic alliances between the U.S., India, and Pakistan and the overall results of the S...This research contributes to the understanding of the U.S.'s role in shaping the geopolitics of the region and highlights the ongoing complexities of international diplomacy in a region fraught with historical rivalries.

China’s Hybrid Response towards Emerging Security Alliances in the Indo-Pacific: A Defense Diplomacy Perspective

The intensifying geopolitical rivalry in the Indo-Pacific has made China employ a hybrid strategy to respond to emerging security alliances in the Indo-Pacific, such as the QUAD, AUKUS, JAPHUS, and SQUAD, by combining militarization, economic coercion, and selective diplomatic engagement, to resist perceived containment while avoiding direct conflict. This qualitative research aims to assess the effectiveness of the strategies and analyze the impact of the responses on regional security stability, through the lens of defense diplomacy and hybrid warfare theoretical framework. Rooted in realist principles, China's response complicates the effectiveness of alliance-based security frameworks and undermines traditional defense diplomacy norms. While China's assertive actions heighten regional tensions, its simultaneous engagement in bilateral economic deals and crisis management mechanisms offers temporary de-escalation. China's strategic maneuvers are designed to solidify its long-term hegemony and test the resilience of regional security frameworks while diminishing US influence.

The Chinese Participation in the Bandung Conference of 1955

Objective: This study aims to analyze the role of the People's Republic of China in the 1955 Bandung Conference and assess its contributions to international cooperation and peace. It specifically examines how China's participation aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 16. Theoretical Framework: The research is grounded in a structuralist approach to international relations, focusing on the agency of developing nations in shaping a post-colonial global order. It considers concepts such as peaceful coexistence, national sovereignty, and South-South cooperation. Method: A historical-analytical method is employed, tracing China’s diplomatic trajectory from the 1954 Colombo and Bogor Conferences to Bandung. The study analyzes official Chinese statements and policies during the conference and their relevance to modern sustainable development objectives. Results and Discussion: The study finds that China played a central role in promoting peace, sovereignty, and cooperation at Bandung. These efforts contributed to the Ten Bandung Principles and anticipated the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement. China's stances at the conference are closely aligned with SDGs including reduced inequalities (Goal 10), sustainable cities (Goal 11), and strong institutions (Goal 16). Research Implications: The research highlights the importance of reevaluating the historical role of emerging nations like China in shaping global governance frameworks, and the relevance of these early diplomatic initiatives to contemporary development goals. Originality/Value: This study offers a novel perspective by linking China’s historical diplomatic engagement at Bandung with today’s global development agenda, emphasizing its enduring impact on international relations and sustainable development.

EXAMINING THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE EAC-LED PEACEBUILDING PROCESS IN THE EASTERN DRC

This study assesses the effectiveness of the East African Community (EAC) mandate in managing and resolving conflict in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This study focuses on the EAC-led Peace Process initiated to restore peace and stability in the region, which has been affected by persistent armed conflict and humanitarian crises. Using a qualitative case study approach, data were collected through document analysis and semi-structured interviews with key informants, including regional policy experts and officials involved in the peace process. Findings indicate that while the EAC has made notable contributions through diplomatic engagements, regional military deployments, and dialogue facilitation, several limitations undermine its overall effectiveness. These include weak enforcement mechanisms, coordination challenges, and limited political commitment among member states. This study contributes to the understanding of regional conflict resolution in Africa and provides recommendations for strengthening the EAC’s mandate in peacebuilding efforts.