Intensity Dimensions Research Articles

Scaling Interpersonal Checklist Items to a Circular Model

The items of the Interpersonal Checklist (ICL) were scaled to a circular model by two different procedures: (1) the items were sorted by two differ ent samples into categories corresponding to the la bels of the eight ICL octants and (2) each item was scaled twice by a third sample, first on the 9-point bipolar scale Hate-Love, and second on the 9-point bipolar scale Dominance-Submissiveness. The two sets of ratings were found to correlate -.09, indicat ing that the two postulated dimensions presumed to underly the circular order are orthogonal. The items were then plotted into the plane formed by using the two scales as axes. The circular scale values calculated for the two sorting procedures correlated .95. The scale values obtained from the sorting procedure and those from the two-dimen sional procedure correlated .89. In general, the plotted items followed a circular order from close synonymity to antonymity and back. Several gaps on the circle were found, indicating an inadequate sampling of items. Scale values were calculated for each of the eight ICL scales using the circular scale values as item weights. When these values were plotted and compared with a factor plot of the eight ICL scales, the plots were remarkably similar. Many items were found to be displaced by the scal ing procedures from the placements given by the authors of the ICL. Most of these displacements were found to be related to an intensity dimension postulated by the authors of the ICL. In general, the mild/moderate items were scaled toward the Love and Dominance poles, and the strong/extreme items were scaled toward the Hate and Submissive poles, thus pulling the items away from the scales they were intended to represent. Some of the major implications of the use of these procedures in the construction of personality instruments are dis cussed.

Equidistant Categorical Labels for Construction of Likert-Type Scales

Though Likert-type scales are frequently employed in research, typically little systematic consideration is given to the process of identifying the number of response categories, selecting appropriate category labels or ensuring that the scale yields an acceptable level of measurement. Relatively little research has been performed to identify the category labels which yield scales with equidistant category points. Unidimensional ratings of category labels associated with the psychological dimensions of intensity, frequency, and similarity on 5-, 7-, and 9-point scales by 192 introductory psychology students yielded several scales with equidistant intervals. Researchers are encouraged to employ such Likert-type scales with interval levels of measurement and to validate them on the population being studied.

Sleep-deprivation: Effects on sleep and EEG in the rat

1. The vigilance states (waking, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non-REM (NREM) sleep), motor activity, food intake and water intake were continuously recorded by telemetry in unrestrained rats. In addition, an amplitude measure and a frequency measure (number of zero-crossings (ZCR) per 10 s) of the telemetered EEG-signal was obtained. The animals were recorded during a control day, then subjected to 12-h or 24-h sleep-deprivation (SD) by means of a slowly rotating cylinder, and subsequently recorded for further 1–2 days. The EEG-parameters were recorded also during SD. 2. On the control day, the EEG-amplitude of NREM-sleep exhibited a decreasing trend in the 12-h light-phase (Figs. 3, 4). The occurence of slow wave sleep (SWS; defined as the NREM-sleep fraction with less than 40 ZCR/10 s) was practically limited to the first part of the light-phase (Figs. 2, 4). Cumulative plots of the zero-crossing bands (Fig. 2) revealed a prominent daily rhythm in the EEG-frequency distributionwithin NREM-sleep. 3. The percentage of NREM-sleep and REM-sleep was little affected by the 12-h SD, but the amount of SWS and the EEG-amplitude of NREM-sleep were increased (Figs. 4, 6). After a 24-h SD period terminating before light-onset, NREM-sleep was reduced and REM-sleep was markedly enhanced (Figs. 4, 6; Table 1). Both the duration and frequency of REM-sleep episodes were increased, and episodes of total sleep prolonged (Table 2). The amount of SWS was significantly more increased after 24-h SD than after 12-h SD, whereas the EEG-amplitude of NREM-sleep was enhanced to a similar extent after both SD-schedules (Tables 1, 3 Fig. 6). 4. After a 24-h SD period terminating before dark-onset, sleep (particularly REM-sleep) was enhanced in the first hours of the dark-phase, yet the usual high activity bouts prevailed in the later part of the dark-phase (Figs. 7, 8; Table 1). The extent and time-course of REM-sleep rebound was similar after the two 24-SD schedules, whereas SWS-rebound was different: SWS exhibited a one-stage rebound when recovery started in the light-phase, and a two-stage rebound when recovery started in the dark-phase (Fig. 9). 5. A comparison of the effects of 12-h SD performed with the usual and with the double cylinder rotation rate, showed only small differences, indicating that forced locomotion was a minor factor in comparison to sleep-deprivation (Fig. 10; Table 1). 6. The daily pattern of SWS on control days, and the marked increase of SWS after SD correspond to the results from other animal and human studies. It is proposed that due to the existence of an intensity dimension, NREM-sleep is finely regulated around its baseline level, and thus may be readily and accurately adjusted to current ‘needs’, whereas REM-sleep, lacking an apparent intensity gradient, is regulated around a level which is considerably below baseline. Thus, in contrast to NREM-sleep, REM-sleep compensation can occur only by an increase in the time devoted to this state, thereby curtailing the time available for other activities.

Properties of different functional types of neurones in the cat's rostral trigeminal nuclei responding to sinus hair stimulation.

1. Properties of neurones in the trigeminal nuclei principalis and oralis responding to movements of facial sinus hairs were studied in cats anaesthetized by I. V. infusion of pentobarbitone.2. Using electrophysiological methods trigeminal neurones were classified into primary afferent fibres, trigeminothalamic relay neurones, interneurones and other unspecified higher order neurones.3. When receptive fields of synaptically activated neurones were compared with those of primary afferent fibres, an often extensive convergence from first order on to higher order neurones was established. Out of 119 relay neurones six received input from one sinus hair only. Spontaneous activity was encountered about twice as often in synaptically activated neurones than in primary afferent fibres.4. The responsiveness of single neurones was unstable over time in about one fifth of the population and then the total number of impulses discharged in successive responses could vary by as much as 500%. Unstable responsiveness occurred sometimes alone but was often accompanied by marked changes in the size or the configuration of the receptive field. Such instabilities were observed in all kinds of synaptically activated neurones but not in primary afferent fibres.5. Afferent inhibition in relay neurones could be elicited from within the excitatory receptive field and appeared to be related to the activation of distinct receptor populations responding to specific stimulus parameters. Inhibition was also seen in interneurones following both mechanical stimulation of the skin and electrical stimulation of lemniscal fibre terminals in the contralateral ventromedial thalamus.6. The results are discussed and compared with previous findings about sinus hair representation in the trigeminal nucleus and the ascending lemniscal projection. The findings indicate that the concept of the ;static properties' of relay neurones is not adequate for all trigeminothalamic relay neurones and may require a critical reconsideration.7. It is suggested that the afferent input from sinus hairs is effectively controlled at the level of the rostral trigeminal nuclei. This control may affect the spatial input to relay neurones, the temporal components of their responses and the intensity dimension of their transmission capacity. It is postulated that by these mechanisms tactile information from the sinus hair system is modulated according to the instantaneous sensory requirements of the behaving cat.

A Methodological Study of Overloadx.

The purpose of this research was to establish a methodology for studying stimulus overload in the psychological laboratory. It was argued that in order to maximize the conditions of overload in simulation, the dimensional criteria of maximal intensity, maximal diversity, and minimal patterning must be included in the methodology. In addition, it was suggested that the psychological phenomenon of overload be operationally defined in terms of the individual's perception of overload rather than the input-output capacity of the system. In a 3 × 2 design, 60 male and female college students performed either an overload or no overload version of a proofreading-vigilance task, a driving-memory task, or a computation-interruption task. The driving-memory task, which was intended to be most extreme on the dimensions of intensity, diversity, and patterning, was perceived as the most overloading of the three experimental tasks. This led to the conclusion that this driving-memory task represented a substantial improvement over existing methods, warranting its future use as a standard methodology.

Sexual Behaviour of the Female Laboratory Rat: Inventory, Patterning, and Measurement

In this study some ethological principles were applied to a laboratory animal studied under laboratory conditions. The observations of the sexual behaviour of the female Wistar laboratory rat were performed in various behavioural contexts and under variable conditions. This made it possible to obtain detailed descriptions of some clear-cut behaviour elements, to determine the reliability of their identification, to analyze their interrelationships, and to study broader relationships of female sexual behaviour. Except for the transition from oestrus to dioestrus, attention was paid to all behavioural states of the female. Progressively, however, the study concentrated on the behaviour of females with reliable readiness to Lordotic Reaction. Observing the behaviour of such females shortly before and immediately after Lordotic Reaction resulted in the classification of the elements into three groups: Precopulatory Behaviour, Copulatory Behaviour and Postcopulatory Aversive Behaviour. The exhibition of Postcopulatory Aversive Behaviour means that the female after performing copulation is transitorily in an aversive state in which she reacts spontaneously or to the male's approach with specific defensive behaviour. Copulatory Behaviour of the female rat consists of Lordotic Reaction, usually accompanied by Ear-wiggling. The elements of Precopulatory Behaviour include Presenting Posture (usually accompanied by Ear-wiggling), Hopping (invariably terminated by Presenting Posture) and Darting (invariably terminated by Presenting Posture). In describing these elements the intensity dimension of their motoric performance was taken into account. The sufficient reliability of identification of the defined elements even in cases of their performance at low intensity, was demonstrated by means of the Kappa index. As soon as the female exhibits any Precopulatory Behaviour element her highest readiness to Lordotic Reaction can be expected. Darting can be considered as more intensive Precopulatory Behaviour than Hopping, and Hopping as more intensive than Presenting Posture. The last formulation is substantiated by three kinds of observations : (1) in the course of the natural oestrus first Presenting Posture, later Hopping and finally Darting emerge; (2) the stated order of intensity of Precopulatory Behaviour positively correlates with the amount of ovarian hormone doses injected to ovariectomized females; (3) Darting is the most effective, Hopping is moderately effective and Presenting Posture is little effective in inducing the copulatory activities of sexually inexperienced males. In addition, the following regularity should be mentioned: the more intensive Precopulatory Behaviour, the more probable is the occurrence of Postcopulatory Aversive Behaviour. Naturally as well as artificially oestrus females prefer to exhibit Precopulatory Behaviour of a certain intensity for some time. The endogenous determination apparently limits the potentialities of the external stimulation. The scaling of the sexual responsiveness into six degrees was based on this principle. The four constituent degrees are clean : at the Lordotic degree the female does not react to a stimulus from the part of the male by any Precopulatory Behaviour, however, she reacts by Lordotic Reaction to the male's mount. The next three degrees are defined by that element of Precopulatory Behaviour (Presenting Posture or Hopping or Darting) with which the female reacts exclusively or almost exclusively to all the stimuli produced by the approaching male. Two intermediate degrees are mixed (the degree of Presenting-and-Hopping and the degree of Hopping-and-Darting) : the female reacts intermittently with two elements of Precopulatory Behaviour apparently in dependency on the intensity of the external stimulation. For the assessment of the intensity of the female sexual responsiveness a testing procedure was constructed, involving a series of subtests and taken into account a broader behavioral context.

Skillfulness in the Judgment of Facial Expression in Relation to a Panel of Judges

Summary The skill fulness of individual Ss in judging facial expressions was evaluated in terms of each S's consistency with the dominant combined judgment of a selected panel of judges. A theoretical model was advanced interrelating distinctions in emotion category, such as pleasure, annoyance, etc., degree of confidence in these category distinctions, and dimensional scaling of emotion intensity and subjective energeticness (activation level) within and combined across already-distinguished monopolar emotion categories. A bipolar pleasure-displeasure emotion intensity dimension was also included. Data extensive enough for analysis of each Ss performance separately were gathered from eight male and female undergraduate Ss on 100 newsmagazine facial snapshots. Nine hypotheses were tested and confirmed. Findings were interpreted as a synthesis and extension of previous approaches. Limitations of the study and directions of future research were discussed.

TOWARD A NEW VIEWPOINT FOR THE ARTIST

ABSTRACTCommunication between the artist and the scientific and technological community has been so tenuous during the past 50 years that the artist is not using knowledge and techniques which originate in that world. Conversely, the scientists and technicians have little insight into the problems of artists, making it difficult for the artist to obtain information he knows he needs. Some of the concepts and techniques valuable to artists are outlined in this paper with a special emphasis on those relating to color.Artists' pigments and vehicles are rapidly changing. Channels of information are needed to keep him current and knowledgable. The artist must use both additive and subtractive color simultaneously, since the visual world he utilizes in creating a picture consists largely of additive situations, but the mixture of his paints is a subtractive process. Metamerism is a problem for the artist as it is in color matching for industry. Color systems, although long known, have never been adequately utilized. The Munsell system is the most practical one at the present time for several reasons. Expanding the Munsell notation to include a relative intensity dimension for pigments would add to its usefulness. A color slide rule and a table of approximate chroma loss between pairs of additive colors are proposed to aid the artist in creating depth effects, illumination effects and transparency effects. The artist should be practical in obtaining and using the facts of paint technology, but flexible in the application of systematic color in order to keep his options open. The use of color systems and techniques, while of value to every artist, can be used at many levels for differing purposes. Such concepts must be tailored to the individual artist's needs.

Effects of noise on people.

An overview of the effects of noise on people as can be determined from the scientific literature is presented. Only audible noise is considered and no attempt is made to describe the extent of the noise problem in terms of the number of people affected or in terms of social and economic costs. Rather, emphasis is placed on describing and classifying the adverse effects and relating them in a general way to the intensive and temporal properties of audible noise. For simplicity, the intensive dimension of the noise is usually given as the A-weighted sound level and detailed descriptions and evaluations of various acoustical measurements are for the most part avoided. The effects of noise are classified as auditory, general psychological, and sociological, or as general physiological. A summary is included.

On the intensive aspect of the temperature sense

A previous study suggested that discriminations between constant temperatures are qualitative rather than intensive, depending on relative amounts of activity among the members of a population of neurons, an ‘across-fiber pattern’. The present study was designed to determine whether judgement of thermal sensations might produce evidence of an intensive dimension in addition of the qualitative dimension. The findings show that with rapid temperature changes two dimensions — quality and intensity — are necessary to account for temperature sensations. In distinction to the coding process suggested for temperature quality, the intensive attribute is related to the total amount of neural activity produced.

Discrimination by newborns of the intensity, frequency and temporal characteristics of auditory stimuli.

The ability of 3‐ to 5‐day‐old neonates to discriminate between auditory stimuli, in terms of each of the dimensions of intensity, pitch and time, was studied using heart‐rate responses in a habituation paradigm. For each of the dimensions a survey of the literature failed to provide results which could be used as the basis for later work involving auditory patterns. Further analysis of an earlier experiment (Stratton, 1970 a) involving stimuli at 80, 85 and 90 db showed that louder stimuli evoked larger initial responses and more rapid habituation. From the same experiment it was found that a change of pitch produced dishabituation as early as the 10th trial. There are reasonable grounds for attributing the increased response to the frequency characteristics rather than a change in the perceived intensity of the stimuli.Previous experiments suggested that fixed inter‐stimulus intervals tended to produce anticipatory heart‐rate changes and modify the magnitude and latency of the response. Two experiments designed specifically to examine temporal phenomena revealed time‐linked behaviour. In both experiments acceleratory responses occurred at the first stimulus omission of a fixed‐interval series. Not all of the subjects showed this effect, and in both experiments, only the subjects who failed to respond to the first stimulus presentation responded to stimulus omission. The findings are discussed in relation to general issues of neonatal psychophysiology, and it is concluded that neonates can discriminate in each of the auditory dimensions, but that preliminary work involving patterns should concentrate on varying pitch and intensity.

Generalization along the dimension of sound intensity in pigeons

Two groups of four pigeons each were trained on a discrimination between two intensities of white noise. The low-intensity group had a 60-dB intensity as the negative discriminative stimulus (S−) and a 70-dB intensity as the positive discriminative stimulus (S+): the high-intensity group had a 95-dB intensity as S− and an 85-dB intensity as S+. Generalization stimuli were all of higher intensity than S+ for the former group and all of lower intensity than S+ for the latter group. The rate of acquisition of the discrimination was faster for the Ss in the high-intensity group. In both groups, the maximum of the generalization function was shifted toward the middle values of the set of test stimuli, away from the training stimuli. Responding showed a decline at the far end of the range of test stimuli. Responding to the positive training stimulus was initially as great as it had been on the preceding training sessions, but became markedly depressed relative to responding to the other stimuli as the test progressed.

Stimulus generalization along dimensions of an active avoidance CS in young rats

Immature rats were trained in two-way shuttle avoidance and tested for generalization in extinction along the frequency and intensity dimensions of the CS. While symmetrical decrements in response strength around the original CS value were found when frequency was varied alone, marked dynamism effects emerged during intensity generalization. Concurrent variation of both dimensions resulted in increased stimulus control by frequency with higher intensity levels. Previous findings of aversively motivated stimulus generalization in young and adult rats were considered.

Stimulus generalization gradients for auditory intensity in rats and guinea pigs

Eight hooded rats and eight albino guinea pigs were given successive discrimination training involving variable-interval reinforcement (for barpressing in the presence of one intensity of a 1,000-Hz tone) randomly alternated with extinction (for pressing during another intensity). For half of the animals in each group, the S+ was 75 dB and the S− was 65 dB; for the other half, the S+ was 85 dB and the S− was 95 dB. All Ss were then tested in extinction for generalization along the intensity dimension with values of 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, and 95 dB. The discrimination performance of the rats and guinea pigs was comparable, but the latter species showed less resistance to extinction during generalization testing. For both species, the discrimination employing the more intense training stimuli was mastered faster than that using the less intense ones. A peaked generalization gradient was obtained from most of the Ss, with maximal responding emitted to a stimulus displaced from S+ in the direction opposite S−, and reduced responding to stimuli still farther removed from S−. The group average function contained a significant quadratic component for each species, although occasional deviations from this pattern were observed.

ON THE FORM OF STIMULUS GENERALIZATION CURVES FOR VISUAL INTENSITY1

Twelve pigeons were given successive discrimination training involving variable-interval reinforcement for key pecking in the presence of one intensity of monochromatic light randomly alternated with extinction for pecking during another intensity. All of the pigeons were then tested in extinction for generalization along the intensity dimension, and all showed a displacement of maximal responding from the positive stimulus in the direction opposite the negative stimulus. For six of the pigeons, for which the test included only three values beyond the positive stimulus, four showed peaked gradients but two did not, showing monotonic gradients with maximal responding to the most extreme test value. For another six pigeons tested over a wider range, all showed peaked gradients. Thus, when a sufficiently wide range of test values is employed, generalization gradients for visual intensity have the same peaked form as do gradients for qualitative visual dimensions such as wavelength or line angle.

Who'll Investigate the Investigators?

During these last few months, in the furor surrounding the Calley trial, the Berrigan indictment and the exposure of F.B.I, documents stolen from its office in Media, Pennsylvania, many Americans have become aware, on a new dimension of intensity, of the way in which our public institutional life has become corrupted by governmental efforts to repress dissent. Much must be blamed on the Vietnamese war, to be sure. But public disgust over the war merely brought this corruption out in the open. Every revelation of the extent of the development of an internal police network to repress dissent has revealed that its roots go back not only to the early days of the Civil Rights movement but that it is a survivor of the McCarthy era of Red-baiting.

On the language of pain.

The purpose of this study was to develop new approaches to the problem of describing and measuring pain in human subjects. Words used to describe pain were brought together and categorized, and an attempt was made to scale them on a common intensity dimension. The data show that: 1) there are many w

Generalization gradients around SsD following errorless discrimination learning

Four pigeons were shaped by an errorless procedure to discriminate a blank key as SD and a key lit by 576 nm as SsD, and then discrimination training continued on a MULT RI 1 min, EXT schedule before generalization tests were conducted on wavelength and intensity dimensions. Generalization gradients along wavelength were flat at zero response rate, while intensity generalization gradients were sloped to high response rates at low intensities. Implications for defining generalization of inhibition were drawn.

Three-dimensional spectral analysis of spike-dome activity

A technique is described in which three-dimensional spectral analyses of the EEG are rapidly produced. Several minutes of the transformed EEG are displayed in a single page, with the dimensions of time, frequency and intensity (or energy). This method of contour plotting generates details not observed in the conventional EEG pattern.

The relationship of no light to the stimulus dimension of light intensity

A discrimination was established in a Skinner box in which the SD was a bright light for half the rats and a dim light for the remaining Ss. On the day following criterion performance all Ss were tested with the stimulus lights off (Extinction 1), followed by extinction with the original stimuli present (Extinction 2). In Extinction 1 all dim SD groups responded significantly more than all bright SD groups. In Extinction 2 all bright SD groups responded significantly more to SD than all dim SD groups. The results were as predicted by Spence’s discrimination model when no light is the lower end of the stimulus dimension; Zeiler’s adaptation level theory also accounts for the results.