Difficult Words Research Articles

“The Messengers are Called Sangandai”: the Greek σαγγάνδης and its Relationship to ἀσγάνδης/ ἀστάνδης

This article examines the Greek noun σαγγάνδης ‘messenger’ which is attested in two lexica, dated to the Roman or early Byzantine periods: the Cambridge Rhetorical Lexicon by an anonymous author and Difficult Words in the Attic Orators by Claudius Casilo. In both works, σαγγάνδης appears together with three words of likely Iranian provenance: ὀροσάγγης ‘benefactor of the Persian king; bodyguard’, παρασάγγης ‘parasang; messenger’ and ἄγγαρος ‘messenger, courier; workman, labourer’. The word σαγγάνδης is analysed in comparison with ἀσγάνδης/ ἀστάνδης ‘messenger’ occurring for the first time in Plutarch’s works and closely linked to the Achaemenid administration. According to the hypothesis put forward in the present paper, both σαγγάνδης and σγάνδης (with its secondary variant στάνδης) are connected to Manichaean Middle Persian/Parthian ižgand ‘messenger’, Sogdian (a)žγand/(ɔ) žγand/ž(i)γant ‘id.’, Jewish Aramaic ʾîzgaddā ‘id.’, Syriac izgandā/izgaddā ‘id.’, Mandaic ašganda ‘helper, assistant, servant; the Messenger’, and go back to Old Persian *zganda- or to early Middle Persian/early Parthian *žgand- (or *zgand-) with the original meaning ‘mounted messenger’. The reconstructed noun is derived from the Proto-Iranian root *zga(n)d- ‘to go on, gallop, mount’, attested in Avestan (Younger Avestan zgaδ(/θ)- ‘to go on horseback, gallop’) and in some Middle and Modern Iranian languages. The original form of the loanword in Greek was probably *σγάνδης which then underwent certain transformations.

ЭТАПЫ СТАНОВЛЕНИЯ И РАЗВИТИЯ ШОТЛАНДСКОЙ ЛЕКСИКОГРАФИИ

It is well known that lexicography, this fertile ground for scientific research, owes a lot to English researchers. This is confirmed by a historical reference pointing to a specific time period (sixteenth century) when the first reference books started to appear in England, which was ahead of the rest of Europe in this aspect. In spite of this, English lexicography has become pivotal in this matter, it is clear that it has not developed the science of lexicography autonomously. For instance, Scottish lexicographers have introduced authentic and separate dictionary directions, such as glossaries of difficult and obscure Scottish words. The collective monograph Scottish in Definition. A History of Scottish Dictionaries. published in Edinburgh in 2012 and edited by I. McLeod and J. Derrick McClure was an inspiration to correct the situation. The preconditions for the emergence and continued existence of variant national lexicographies have been considered by science for many centuries. During the course of this continuous work a great number of patterns and tendencies have been described accompanying the birth of the lexicography of a particular state, and there is no doubt that all these cases were made possible only by the release of a comprehensive explanatory dictionary, responsible for the description of one particular language. Scottish lexicography plays a prominent role in recent research, as the issue of national identity is particularly relevant at present. The objective of this paper is to address the problems of authenticity of Scottish lexicography within the language system using methods of classifying the evolution stages of Scottish lexicography along with lexicographic analysis of modern Scottish dictionaries. The undertaken research shows that Scottish lexicography is a real phenomenon in British lexicography.

Health Services: A Mixed Methods Assessment of Canadian Cancer Patient Education Materials Related to the 2019 Novel Coronavirus.

The 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has prompted the reorganization in the scheduling and method of care for many patients, including patients diagnosed with cancer. Cancer patients, who have an immunocompromised status, may be at a higher risk of severe symptoms from infection with COVID-19. While information is rapidly evolving regarding COVID-19, Canada, both nationally and provincially, has been conveying new information to patients online. We assessed the content and readability of COVID-19-related online Canadian patient education material (PEM) for cancer patients to determine if the content of the material was written at a grade reading level that the majority of Canadians can understand. PEMs were extracted from provincial cancer agencies and the national Canadian Cancer Society, evaluated using 10 readability scales, qualitatively analyzed to identify their themes and difficult word content. Thirty-eight PEMs from both national and provincial cancers associations were, on average, written above the recommended 7th grade level. Each of the associations’ average grade levels were: BC Cancer (11.00 95% confidence interval [CI] 8.27-13.38), CancerControl Alberta (10.46 95% CI 8.29-12.62), Saskatchewan Cancer Agency (11.08 95% CI 9.37-12.80), Cancer Care Manitoba (9.55 95% CI 6.02-13.01), Cancer Care Ontario (9.35 95% CI 6.80-11.90), Cancer Care Nova Scotia (10.95 95% CI 9.86-12.04), Cancer Care Eastern Health Newfoundland and Labrador (10.14 95% CI 6.87-13.41), and the Canadian Cancer Society (10.06 95% CI 8.07-12.05). Thematic analysis identified 4 themes: public health strategy, information about COVID-19, patient instructions during COVID-19, and resources. Fifty-three percent of the complex words identified were medical jargon. This represents an opportunity to improve PEM readability, to allow for greater comprehension amongst a wider target audience.

Ἀβλαβὲς ὕδωρ y ἀάατον Στυγὸς ὕδωρ

"In Theocritus Idyll XXIV, 98 ἀβλαβὲς ὕδωρ the adjective retains the Homeric sense of βλάπτω, βλάβομαι, ‘stop something from moving forward at speed’, while evoking the phrase ἀάατον Στυγὸς ὕδωρ from Iliad XIV, 271, because ἀβλαβής was an usual explanation of the difficult word ἀάατος in the ancient exegesis."

The Social Identity Change of Little Bee as the Main Character in Chris Cleave’s The Other Hand

<p><strong>This research examines Little Bee’s social identity change based on Chris Cleave’s novel entitled <em>the Other Hand. </em>The object of this research focuses on the Little Bee’s social identity change. The method used in this research is critical reading. To collect the data, the researcher did some steps including reading the novel closely and intensively, making notes, visiting library, and exploring the data from the internet which are related to the topic. In analyzing the data, the researcher used descriptive qualitative method.</strong></p><strong>After conducting the research, the researcher got several research findings. They are: 1). The reason of Little Bee’s social identity change are her envy towards British people’s easy life, her needs to tell her sad story, her will to survive, and her desire to overcome her past. 2). The way Little Bee learns her new identity is by reading, such as novels and newspaper, practicing how to pronounce and speak, looking for difficult words in her dictionary in order to learn the language, and learning the British life by watching television and reading books to understand the British lifestyle.</strong>

REVEALING EFL STUDENTS’ RESPONSES ON THE USE OF SOCRATIVE IN READING ACTIVITY

Industrial Revolution (IR) 4.0 has influenced practice of English Foreign Language (EFL) instruction. One of which is through the deployment of Socrative as the technology integration to enhance the students’ skills of listening, reading, writing and speaking. This paper was aimed at elaborating the use of Socrative in English academic reading classrooms done by students in university level. The students’ responses on their experiences when utilizing this application were revealed. The results exemplified that students used Socrative for reading activities. By collecting the students’ opinions on Socrative via a survey, it was found out that the students could enrich their vocabulary because they employed a reading strategy that should be implemented by them, such as noting difficult word(s), and looking for the meaning in dictionary. In another side, the students argued that this online application had a lack of aspect in a reading course. Further, recommendations on the practice of Socrative in EFL classroom are discussed.

The Japanese Understanding on New Words with Suffix -Teki Across Generations

The research attempted to portray the language dynamic on using the suffix -teki among Japanese based on old and young generations as reflected by age. Data were collected by using questionnaires distributed to the Japanese native speakers. New words were responded to as understandable, doubtful, and difficult. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used in order to find out the results. For both the young and old generations, the stem words from Kango were the easiest to understand, yet, the most difficult words were groups of Gairaigo, Wago, and Konshugo. A significant difference was found between the age groups. The old generation expressed more doubt on new foreign words than the young one only in using -teki for Gairaigo word group. It is concluded that some meanings of words with suffixes are understood across young and old generations. However, the development of technology and globalization may impact some doubtful responses that differentiate between these two generations.

Some Reasons of Using Native Language as Medium of Instruction at Non-English Department

This research aimed to describe the reasons of using Indonesian language as medium of instruction at non-English department students. This research is conducted at non English department of Mandalika University of Education and there were two English general lecturers and 14 students taken as samples. Type of research used in this research was descriptive quantitative research by survey model. Data were taken from the result of questionnaires answered by both lecturers and students then analyzed by using frequency and percentage. Based on the research findings it can be concluded that there were ten reasons of using Indonesian as medium of instruction for non-English department students. Those ten reasons covered three functions that for teaching language skills, teaching the component of language skills and class management. The three functions gave positive effect in teaching and learning English at non-English department. For teaching language skills aimed to develop students’ understanding in reading comprehension, to discuss among students is easier, and to make English easy to learn. The using of Indonesian in component of language skills aimed to explain difficult words in reading text in students’ native language, to explain grammar, to explain error made by the students. The reasons of using Indonesian in classroom management can be seen before and after teaching and learning process such as to explain new English teaching material, to develop learning atmosphere more comfortable, to ensure understanding of previous teaching material and giving instruction for assignment or test.

The Principles of Exegetics and the Explanation of Difficult Words in the Analects

The Principles of Exegetics and the Explanation of Difficult Words in the Analects

INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: A SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF THE ORIGINAL NOVEL DAVID COPPERFIELD

The objectives of this project are to describe the intralingual translation techniques used in translating the original novel David Copperfield into a simplified version and to find out the reasons why the translator made a simplified version of the original novel David Copperfield written by Charles Dickens. This study used the descriptive qualitative method. The data were collected by reading the novel, comparing the original and simplified texts of David Copperfield, identifying, classifying, counting, and concluding the results. The theory of Jakobson was used to analyze the data related to intralingual translation techniques. The results of the study showed that from the total data (20 texts from the original novel David Copperfield and 20 texts from the simplified version), the paraphrasing technique was used 6 times and the summarizing technique was used 14 times. Besides, the most dominant intralingual translation technique used by the translator is the summarizing technique. The reasons why the translator used paraphrasing and summarizing techniques in making the intralingual translation of the original novel into a simplified version were also found. Firstly, the original novel consists of 750 pages, which are easier to read by making the summary of the novel into 238 pages using the summarizing technique. Secondly, the original novel consists of many difficult words, which can hinder the comprehension of the reader whereas in the simplified version the novel was paraphrased by using the paraphrasing technique.

English - Algerian Arabic Code-switching in EFL Classroom: Case of EFL Teachers and Students in the Department of English at Tlemcen University, Algeria

The main aim of the present paper is to provide an in-depth look at the relationship between English and Algerian Arabic (L1) in an EFL classroom in the department of English at Tlemcen University, Algeria. In this regard, the researchers try to determine the reasons and functions behind the use of Code-Switching among EFL teachers and students of English to Algerian Arabic. To conduct this research work, the researchers collected data through an interview that was conducted with 16 teachers of Comprehension and Oral Expression, Literature, and Civilization in the Department of English at Tlemcen University in Algeria, and supported by a classroom observation of students with the same teachers. Findings revealed that the use of Algerian Arabic is inevitable. Teachers’ responses exhibit negative attitudes towards English-Algerian Arabic code-switching in class, but they do not deny its integration as a pedagogical necessity to explain difficult words and expressions that are hard to be grasped in the target language. The results also showed that teachers peacefully attempt to get their students accustomed to lectures delivered in English solely by avoiding translation and applying the direct method of TEFL. Furthermore, they declare that infrequent use of AA is beneficial to foster students’ academic achievements and language skills development.

U-9 The literal and syntactic discussions in Tafseer Zia ul Quran (A scientific and research-based review)

The Qur'an is the Word of the guidance. To understand the Qur'an and to get guidance from it, its interpretation is required. One of the main sources of interpretation is literal and syntactic discussions. The Companions have also used it during the interpretation of the Holy Quran. Every notable commentator in his book considers literal interpretation of unique words and syntactic discussion in compound words. Due to lack of Arabic understanding in the Indian subcontinent, Urdu commentators pay little attention to the literal and syntax. But Pir Mohammed Karam Shah al-Azhari has paid special attention to this. Pir Muhammad Karam Shah Al Azhari performs literal research of difficult and unique words in the Quran and makes it simple and appealing. In Zia-ul-Quran, Peer Muhammad Karam Shah Al-Azhari has beautifully solved the difficult places of the syntax only in such a way that the eloquence regarding the syntax of that place was made clear and the knot was opened. From this, the eloquence in reference to the syntax became clear. The basis of this article is the literal and syntactic discussions in Tafseer Zia ul Quran. A brief introduction of the commentary Zia-ul-Quran in this scientific and research-based review and mentions its merits and characteristics. The literal and syntax explain the literal and terminological connotations and their usefulness. Some examples of literal and syntactic discussions are quoted from Zia ul-Quran. The compilation of this research thesis is accomplished with the consultation of modern and old resources, and the books on this topic.

Intermediate EFL Students' Self­Assessment of Phonetically Difficult Words in English

Intermediate EFL Students' Self­Assessment of Phonetically Difficult Words in English

Auditory–Visual stimuli: Effects on derived relations with compound stimuli

AbstractThis research explored the effect of teaching conditional discriminations with three procedures on the derivation of 36 stimuli relations (derived relations). The stimuli used consisted of three characteristics musical instruments, along with the corresponding picture. In the first experiment six university students were trained with simple stimuli and tested with compound auditory–visual samples; therefore, a one‐to‐many structure was used. In the second experiment, auditory stimuli were replaced by visual stimuli, for the samples used, for new students. A third experiment was implemented with an extra phase of training with compound stimuli for six new students. The structure of the experiments was: pretests (Xbcd–A; Xacd–B; Xabd–C; Xabc–D), training (A–B; A–C; A–D), and posttests (same as pretests). The difference between these conditions was the kind of stimuli used and a new phase of teaching used in condition 3: (Xbcd–A). The results indicate that training with simple stimuli on discriminations that include stimuli that are easy to discriminate from each other (words and sounds) is a sufficient condition for good posttest performance. However, when comparisons are made difficult (words only), participants show better performance on new tests if they have a learning history with compound stimuli.

Examining the effect of list composition on monitoring and control processes in metamemory.

According to the widely accepted cue-utilization view, judgments of learning (JOLs) are thought to be comparative in nature, such that they are sensitive to the relative differences between stimuli. Here, we report the results of three experiments that both support and extend this tenet of the cue-utilization view by examining the impact of relative differences on metacognitive control strategies, including study-time allocation and re-study selection. By presenting word pairs of medium-difficulty intermixed with either easy or difficult word pairs we manipulated list composition to assess the impact of the relative difference between items on individuals' JOLs (Experiments 1 and 2a), study-time allocation (Experiment 1), and re-study selection (Experiments 2a and 2b). First, our manipulation of list composition demonstrated that stimuli of equal difficulty are judged to be more or less memorable depending on the context in which they are presented, thereby confirming previous findings that JOLs are sensitive to the relative differences among items. Second, with regard to metacognitive control strategies, our results indicated that list composition may not impact all control strategies in the same fashion. Specifically, the relative differences between items did not appear to influence the amount of study time allocated to a given item, but did affect which items were selected for re-study. These findings have important applied implications, and may assist in the development of more effective guidance on how to best engage in self-regulated learning.

MƏKTƏBƏQƏDƏR YAŞLI UŞAQLARIN NİTQİNİN İNKİŞAF ETDİRİLMƏSİNDƏ TAPMACALARIN ƏHƏMİYYƏTİ

Summary Today, mastering the mother tongue of preschool children is one of the important tasks of education. The development of a child's speech and thinking, perception of the world around him, is closely linked with the comprehensive formation of his personality. Riddles play an important role in developing children's thinking and speech, broadening their understanding of the environment, and enhancing their observation skills. The purpose of creating riddles as an important means of mental education is to help develop attention and speech, to be able to pronounce difficult words well, to acquire the habit of saying them correctly by speaking and repeating them often, to concentrate and to enrich vocabulary. Thus, riddles polish children's minds, give them knowledge about different areas of life, expand the circle of meetings, enrich their knowledge about objects and events. Key words: preschool education, mother tongue, speech development, importance of riddles, knowledge, skill, habits

Barriers in Reading Comprehension of University Students: Analysis of the Complicated Words Annotated in the VYTEDU-CW Corpus

Students often require a greater understanding of the lexicon that teachers use when dictating an assignment in class or in written texts as supporting material. Identifying and labelling difficult words has allowed us to examine the problem. A sample of students from the University of Guayaquil (Ecuador) was taken to experiment in a corpus of video transcripts that correspond to the different careers. After performing the analysis of the tagged words, the conclusions reached by other research papers in lexical simplification are confirmed and corroborates the recommendations of the Easy Reading guide prepared by Inclusion Europe in 2009. The investigation determined that the words labeled as difficult were specialized words, common lexical words, slang, English words, acronyms, among others. It was difficult for students to understand its meaning; in some cases, they either ignored its definition or just had the wrong idea of the lexicon. This work aims to be a contribution to future research in the area of lexical simplification applied to the development of solutions for detecting difficult words in the university academic field. Also, the type of complex expressions identified in the VYTEDU-CW corpus were characterized by the software, which enriches this resource while opening the possibility to organize a workshop where to promote research in the detection of difficult words to the Spanish. The support to validate these solutions is available to the scientific community.

Is the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire applicable to lower educated adolescents?

Abstract Background The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire self-report (SDQ-SR) is a widely used instrument to identify emotional and behavioral problems by Preventive Child Healthcare (PCH). It is a valid instrument in more highly educated adolescents, however evidence regarding lower educated adolescents (vocational school) is lacking. The aim of this study was to compare the psychometric properties of the SDQ-SR when used with less well and more highly educated ('higher') adolescents, and to explore opinions of adolescents and PCH professionals regarding its suitability. Methods We included 426 adolescents (130 lower and 296 higher educated), who completed the SDQ-SR. We compared how the psychometric properties (i.e. internal consistency) applied to lower and higher educated adolescents. We assessed whether the five-factor structure of the SDQ is invariant across different educational levels. Moreover, we interviewed 24 adolescents from pre-vocational secondary education schools, and performed online focus group interviews with 17 PCH professionals. Results The internal consistencies (Cronbach's alphas) per SDQ scale were comparable for lower and higher educated adolescents. On most subscales the lower educated adolescents had higher mean scores than the higher educated adolescents. Findings on differences by educational level for the other psychometric properties, i.e. multi-group invariance and single group (CFA) analyses, were inconsistent, with some measures showing unequal factor loadings but others not. Although professionals and lower educated adolescents reported that the SDQ includes many outdated and difficult words, professionals nevertheless perceived the SDQ-SR as a valid instrument. Conclusions The psychometric properties of the SDQ-SR are sufficient for use among lower educated adolescents. However, for optimal implementation in PCH there is a need for improvement in the wording of the SDQ, as expressed by both professionals and adolescents. Key messages The psychometric properties of the SDQ are sufficient for use among lower educated adolescents. For optimal implementation the SDQ needs to be updated in more understandable language.

Racial Differences in Patient-provider Communication, Patient Self-efficacy, and Their Associations With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-related Damage: A Cross-sectional Survey.

Despite significant racial disparities in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) outcomes, few studies have examined how disparities may be perpetuated in clinical encounters. We aimed to explore associations between areas of clinical encounters - patient-provider communication and patient self-efficacy - with SLE-related damage, in order to identify potential areas for intervention to reduce SLE outcome disparities. We collected cross-sectional data from a tertiary SLE clinic including patient-provider communication, general self-efficacy, self-efficacy for managing medications and treatments, patient-reported health status, and clinical information. We compared racial groups and used logistic regression to assess race-stratified association of patient-provider communication and patient self-efficacy with having SLE-related damage. Among 121 patients (37% White, 63% African American), African Americans were younger, more likely to be on Medicaid, and less likely to be college educated, married, or living with a partner or spouse. African Americans reported less fatigue and better social function, took more complex SLE medication regimens, had lower fibromyalgia (FM) scores, and had higher SLE disease activity and SLE-related damage scores. African Americans reported similar self-efficacy compared to White patients, but they reported more hurried communication with providers, which was reflected in their perception that providers used words that were difficult to understand. Perceiving providers use difficult words and lower general self-efficacy were associated with having SLE-related damage among African American but not White patients. African Americans had more severe SLE and perceived more hurried communication with providers. Both worse communication and lower self-efficacy were associated with having SLE-related damage among African American but not White patients, suggesting that these factors should be investigated as potential interventions to reduce SLE racial disparities.

You're in Good Paws by M. Fergus

Fergus, Maureen. You're in Good Paws. Illustrated by Kathryn Durst. Tundra-Random House Canada, 2019.
 Maureen Fergus’s You’re in Good Paws is about a young boy named Leo, whose parents accidently take him to an animal hospital to get his tonsils out. Leo is unsure about being at an animal hospital, but the animals do their best to make him feel comfortable and safe. Leo even ends up making friends with other animal patients.
 The illustrations, by Kathryn Durst, are bright and take up most of the space on the pages. The illustrations give children a lot to look at and explore. There are some hidden jokes throughout the book, which can be as entertaining for the adults as they are for the children. The text is very simple for children to follow and more difficult words, such as anesthesiologist, are explained in plain terms making it easy for children to understand.
 While the story of a young boy’s parents taking him to an animal hospital may seem silly, it puts a positive spin on going to the hospital. Leo’s adventure makes a hospital visit seem less scary and even puts a fun spin on having to get surgery. This book can be very useful for children who are unfamiliar with hospitals and have to have surgery or even just go in for a check-up.
 With that in mind, I would recommend it for elementary school and public libraries.
 Recommended: 3 out of 4 starsReviewer: Jenn Laskosky
 Jenn Laskosky is a graduate student at the University of Alberta in the Library and Information Studies program. She has an interest in health sciences librarianship and international librarianship. Her passion for reading has continued to grow throughout her education.