Different Types Of Clay Minerals Research Articles

Tracing TiO2 photocatalytic degradation of humic acid in the presence of clay particles by excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectra

Excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectral features were evaluated for the elucidation of the photocatalytic degradation of sole humic acid (HA) and HA in the presence of clay minerals. Montmorillonite (Mt) or kaolinite (Kt) was selected to represent two different types of clay minerals. EEM fluorescence signatures displayed irradiation time dependent transformation of humic-like fluorophores to fulvic-like fluorophores in accordance with the photocatalytic mineralization of HA. The role of Ca2+ ions on the photocatalytic degradation of HA could also be visualized through EEM under the specified conditions. Upon photocatalytic treatment, the role of Mt was more pronounced with respect to the effects observed in the presence of Kt in comparison to the results achieved for sole HA. Under prolonged irradiation conditions (tirr = 180 min) almost complete removal of fluorophoric groups was detected in relation to a substantial degree of mineralization (>75% removal of dissolved organic carbon, DOC). As a correlative approach, fluorescence-derived index defined as fluorescence intensity (FI) represented by the ratio of the emission intensity at λemis = 450 nm to that at λemis = 500 nm, following excitation at λexc = 370 nm was successfully employed. FI values were correlated to specified UV parameters (UV254 and UV280) revealing an inverse relationship. Moreover, through normalization of the specified UV parameters to DOC contents, the derived specific UV parameters (SUVA254 and SUVA280) could also be successfully correlated to FI. The obtained results indicated that besides photocatalytic mineralization efficiencies, UV–vis and fluorescence spectroscopic properties could also be employed to gain further information on the humic structural changes attained through non-selective oxidation mechanism in comparison to the data obtained under non-oxidative conditions.

Unified water isotherms for clayey porous materials

[1] We provide a unified model for the soil-water retention function, including the effect of bound and capillary waters for all types of soils, including clayey media. The model combines a CEC-normalized isotherm describing the sorption of the bound water (and the filling of the trapped porosity) and the van Genuchten model to describe the capillary water sorption retention but ignore capillary condensation. For the CEC-normalized isotherm, we tested both the BET and Freundlich isotherms, and we found that the Freundlich is more suitable than the BET isotherm in fitting the data. It is also easier to combine the Freundlich isotherm with the van Genuchten model. The new model accounts for (1) the different types of clay minerals, (2) the different types of ions sorbed in the Stern layer and on the basal planes of 2:1 clays, and (3) the pore size distribution. The model is validated with different data sets, including mixtures of kaolinite and bentonite. The model parameters include two exponents (the pore size exponent of the van Genuchten model and the exponent of the Freundlich isotherm), the capillary entry pressure, and two critical water contents. The first critical water content is the water content at saturation (porosity), and the second is the maximum water content associated with adsorption forces, including the trapped nonbound water.

Weathering and mineralogical variation in gneissic rocks and their effect in Sangrumba Landslide, East Nepal

Sangrumba landslide is one of the largest and the most active landslides in Nepal Himalaya. Geologically the landslide belongs to the Higher Himalaya and consists of Pre-Cambrian biotite–garnet and sillimanite gneiss with some quartzite. The present paper aims at describing various degrees of rock weathering and their effect in Sangrumba landslide. Field study followed by mineralogical, geochemical and geotechnical analyses of the collected rock and soil samples from the landslide zone were used in characterizing weathering degree. The gneisses are intensely weathered while quartzite is unweathered. Petrographical and X-ray diffraction analyses showed that the rocks in the landslide zone had undergone weathering process with the formation of different types of clay minerals as kaolinite, vermiculite, smectite and chlorite. This was further confirmed by the Scan Electron Microscope and Energy Dispersive X-ray analyses. These clay minerals drastically reduced the rock strength facilitating the extensive failure of the Sangrumba landslide. The major and trace element composition of the rock and soil samples was calculated from the XRF analyses. The geochemical analyses and weathering indexes of rocks showed that they are significantly weathered and had a major influence in the formation of the Sangrumba landslide. In addition, mechanical strength measurement of rock/soil showed that the strength drastically decreases as the weathering intensity increases. Rainfall followed by the rock type are the most dominant parameters influencing the weathering process which leads to the formation of large landslide as the present one. These findings can be used in other areas with similar geological and topographical conditions.

The role of clay minerals in the reduction of nitrate in groundwater by zero-valent iron

Bench-scale batch experiments were performed to investigate the feasibility of using different types of clay minerals (bentonite, fuller’s earth, and biotite) with zero-valent iron for their potential utility in enhancing nitrate reduction and ammonium control. Kinetics experiments performed with deionized water (DW) and groundwater (GW) revealed nitrate reduction by Fe(0) proceeded at significantly faster rate in GW than in DW, and such a difference was attributed to the formation of green rust in GW. The amendment of the minerals at the dose of 25 g L −1 in Fe(0) reaction in GW resulted in approximately 41%, 43%, and 33% more removal of nitrate in 64 h reaction for bentonite, fuller’s earth, and biotite, respectively, compared to Fe(0) alone reaction. The presumed role of the minerals in the rate enhancement was to provide sites for the formation of surface bound green rust. Bentonite and fuller’s earth also effectively removed ammonium produced from nitrate reduction by adsorption, with the removal efficiencies significantly increased with the increase in mineral dose above 5:1 Fe(0) to mineral mass ratio. Such a removal of ammonium was not observed for biotite, presumably due to its lack of swelling property. Equilibrium adsorption experiments indicated bentonite and fuller’s earth had maximum ammonium adsorption capacity of 5.6 and 2.1 mg g −1, respectively.

Baseline Studies of the Clay Minerals Society Source Clays: Geological Origin

In any clay deposit, the nature of the mineral assemblage and the composition of individual clay minerals can change radically in a few em. Consequently, any given locality can contain many subtly different types of clay minerals. Results from different laboratories on ostensibly the same clay material may not always be comparable because the samples may indeed not contain an assembly of identical clay minerals. Such confusion slows the understanding of this important group of minerals. Several attempts were made to provide investigators with reasonably constant clay materials, the first being that of the American Petroleum Institute Project 49 (Kerr, 1949). The Clay Minerals Society Source Clays project proposed to provide investigators with gently homogenized clay materials, carefully collected and processed under the supervision of clay specialists. The collection would include metric ton amounts to ensure a long-lasting collection. The program began in 1972, with the introduction of the materials described in this paper. Later the program expanded to include the Special Clays. These samples are materials not amenable to homogenization, or they are available in very small amounts.