Sea Surface Temperature Difference Research Articles

Species composition and timing of penaeid shrimp postlarvae (Decapoda, Penaeidae) in two zones of the Mexican Pacific coast

The species composition and variation in density (postlarvae m−3) of penaeid shrimp postlarvae were surveyed every 14 days in two zones of the Mexican Pacific coast; in the north (Mazatlán, 23°N 106°W) and south (Gulf of Tehuantepec, 15°N 95°W). Sampling coincided with full moon and new moon, and they were carried out with plankton net (0.3 m mouth diameter and 450 μm mesh size). Average sea surface temperature (SST) for 1985-1995 increased from Mazatlán (26.2 ± 0.2°C) to Tehuantepec (28.3 ± 0.5°C). The difference in SST between the coldest and warmest month was 7.8°C in Mazatlán and 3.3°C in Tehuantepec. Four species of penaeid shrimp postlarvae were identified: Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931), L. stylirostris (Stimpson, 1874), Farfantepenaeus californiensis (Holmes, 1900) and F. brevirostris (Kingsley, 1878). There was a regional variation in the species composition. L. vannamei was abundant at both coasts with 40% and F. californiensis varied from south to north from 45 to 36%; the less representative species were L. stylirostris and F. brevirostris, which varied from south to north from 15 to 24%. The occurrence period near Mazatlán is seven months, and it is year-round in Tehuantepec. This study suggests that warm water and low seasonal SST variability facilitate the presence of the shrimp larvae over a longer period.

Effect of Sea Surface Temperature Errors on Snowfall in WRF: A Case Study of a Heavy Snowfall Event in Korea in December 2012

We examined the sensitivity of simulated snowfall to prescribed sea surface temperature (SST) data using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and the Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis (OSTIA) SST dataset for the Korean Peninsula. The OSTIA data were initially compared with in situ buoy measurements from three coastal sites in the Yellow Sea and was shown to be in good agreement with the in situ data with root mean square errors of 0.14-0.17 K for the daily mean values. Next, we conducted several WRF simulations, including a baseline simulation with the OSTIA data and sensitivity simulations with a temporally and spatially varying SST. The simulations were run for the Yellow Sea during December 2012 when a severe snowfall occurred in Korea. The baseline model generally captured the observed spatial and temporal variations of snowfall, surface air temperature and surface pressure in Korea. The sensitivity simulations with an increased and decreased SST resulted in a variation of +0.8/-0.7 K for the surface air temperature, ±0.6 hPa for the surface pressure, and ±0.3 m s^(-1) for the surface wind speed, in relation to the baseline simulation. The SST deviation affected the precipitation variability with changes of ±9% for snowfall and ±18% for rainfall, indicating considerable model sensitivity to SST perturbations. The change in the meteorological variables of the upper layer induced by the SST perturbations showed a symmetrical structure with respect to warmer and colder SST. Nevertheless, ice represented a nonlinear combination of the results at the low and mid-levels.

The East Asian winter monsoon variability in response to precession during the past 150 000 yr

Abstract. The response of the East Asian winter monsoon variability to orbital forcing is still unclear, and hypotheses are controversial. We present a 150 000 yr record of sea surface temperature difference (ΔSST) between the South China Sea and other Western Pacific Warm Pool regions as a proxy for the intensity of the Asian winter monsoon, because the winter cooling of the South China Sea is caused by the cooling of surface water at the northern margin and the southward advection of cooled water due to winter monsoon winds. The ΔSST showed dominant precession cycles during the past 150 000 yr. The ΔSST varies at precessional band and supports the hypothesis that monsoon is regulated by insolation changes at low-latitudes (Kutzbach, 1981), but contradicts previous suggestions based on marine and loess records that eccentricity controls variability on glacial–interglacial timescales. Maximum winter monsoon intensity corresponds to the May perihelion at precessional band, which is not fully consistent with the Kutzbach model of maximum winter monsoon at the June perihelion. Variation in the East Asian winter monsoon was anti-phased with the Indian summer monsoon, suggesting a linkage of dynamics between these two monsoon systems on an orbital timescale.

Why Did Large Differences Arise in the Sea Surface Temperature Datasets across the Tropical Pacific during 2012?

AbstractDuring June–November 2012, pronounced differences in tropical Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies were observed between three widely used SST products: the extended reconstructed SST version 3b (ERSSTv3b), and the optimum interpolation SST version 2 analyses (OISST), produced weekly (OISSTwk) and daily (OISSTdy). During June–August 2012, the Niño-3.4 SST anomaly (SSTA) index was 0.2°–0.3°C lower in ERSSTv3b than in OISSTwk and OISSTdy, while it was 0.3°–0.4°C higher from September to November 2012. Such differences in the Niño-3.4 SSTA index can impact the assessment of the status of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is determined using a threshold of ±0.5°C in the Niño-3.4 SSTA index.To investigate the reasons for the differences between ERSSTv3b and OISSTdy/OISSTwk, an experimental analysis (called ERSSTsat) is created that is similar to ERSSTv3b but includes satellite-derived SSTs. However, significant differences in the Niño-3.4 SSTA index remained between ERSSTsat and OISSTdy/OISSTwk. Comparisons of ERSSTsat and OISSTdy indicate that their differences are mostly associated with the different schemes for bias adjustment applied to the satellite-based SSTs. It is therefore suggested that the differences in the Niño-3.4 SSTA index between ERSSTv3b and OISSTdy cannot be solely due to the inclusion of but by the bias adjustment methodology of satellite data in OISSTdy.Finally, the SST products are compared with observations from ships, buoys, and satellites. On the monthly time scale, the area-averaged Niño-3.4 SSTA index in the tropical Pacific is more consistent with in situ observations in ERSSTv3b than in OISSTdy. In contrast, pointwise observations across the tropical Pacific are more consistent with OISSTdy than ERSSTv3b. It is therefore suggested that the differences among SST products are partially due to a structural uncertainty of various SST estimates.

The structure of planktonic communities under variable coastal upwelling conditions off Cape Ghir (31°N) in the Canary Current System (NW Africa)

Cape Ghir (∼31°N), in the Canary Current System, is an area of permanent coastal upwelling with maximum intensity in summer–autumn, when a strong across-shore thermal gradient and increased mesoscale activity are present. The effects of spatial (cross-shore transect with 7 stations) and temporal (5 dates: from December 2008 to October 2009) variations in upwelling conditions on the structure of planktonic communities (functional groups, size and taxa composition, abundance and carbon biomass) were investigated. Multivariate analysis of the environmental variables enabled both spatial separation of the stations, based primarily on differences in nutrient concentration, and a temporal distinction of upwelling phases, based mostly on differences in sea surface temperature and number of days favourable to upwelling. These clusters were also representative of the time–space variability in the planktonic communities, suggesting that upwelling conditions directly influence their structure. For most of the cruises, the microplankton (mainly diatoms and auto/mixotrophic dinoflagellates) made the highest contributions to photoautotrophic carbon (C) biomass but the nanoplankton (mainly flagellates and dinoflagellates) made the largest contributions to total chlorophyll-a (Chl-a). Mean heterotrophic:autotrophic biomass ratios (from pico-to microplankton during three cruises) were mostly ⩽1 (normal pyramid), as expected for productive coastal areas, only when the contribution of mixotrophy was considered. A mixed composition of functional groups of autotrophs/mixotrophs in the coastal and coastal transition zones off C. Ghir is probably the result of the nutrient contents in the upwelled waters since potential silicate or nitrate limitation together with a relatively high C:Chl-a in the micro-phytoplankton were detected during some of the cruises. Temporal changes in diatom taxa with different nutrient requirements also suggested a strong influence of nutrients. The comparatively lower nutrient contents in the upwelled waters off Cape Ghir are linked to the regional circulation patterns, a relatively narrow shelf (lower residence time of the upwelled waters), a higher level of mesoscale activity, and with weak to moderate wind intensities for most part of the year.

Interannual Variability of Common Squid Fishing Ground in the East Sea derived from Satellite and In-situ Data

In this study, we estimate the interannual spatial and temporal distributions of fishing grounds at night in the East Sea based on satellite and in-situ data. We observe that the <TEX>$15^{\circ}C$</TEX> thermal front moves in the north-south direction according to the movement of the warm water (above <TEX>$18^{\circ}C$</TEX>) in the Tsushima Warm Current (TWC) area, forcing the cold water area (below <TEX>$10^{\circ}C$</TEX>) to either expand or shrink. The interannual variations of sea surface temperature (SST) in winter represented by the indicator SST of <TEX>$6^{\circ}C$</TEX> are consistent with the east-west zonal areas in the central East Sea which represented over <TEX>$1^{\circ}C$</TEX> standard deviation of SST in February during 1990-2000. Annual SST in the fishing grounds of common squid fishing vessels, observed both by fishing vessels and satellites range from 9-<TEX>$22^{\circ}C$</TEX>, with the satellite-observed data having a larger range than the fishing vessel-based ones. The interannual distributions of the common squid fishing grounds in the East Sea are mostly concentrated in the TWC area in the southwestern part of the East Sea and in the coast of southern Honshu and Hokkaido in Japan. The interannual distributions of the nighttime fishing vessels are consistent with the catches investigated from the fishing vessel.

The development of late Holocene coastal cooling in the northern South China Sea

Paired high-resolution sea surface temperature (SST) records, based on the long-chain alkenone unsaturation index (U37K′), were reconstructed to decipher the SST evolution over the past 8000 years and its possible driving mechanisms at the Hong Kong coastal region. The two SST records, derived from a sediment core in the Pearl River Estuary and an offshore core in the northern South China Sea (SCS), show different patterns of SST changes. The coastal record shows relatively stable, warm temperatures during the mid-Holocene (∼7.4–2.6 ka), and substantial cooling (>2 °C) thereafter. The cooling was most pronounced in the past ∼0.6 ka, likely associated with the Little Ice Age (LIA). The offshore record generally reveals a warming trend from 8 ka to ∼3.5 ka and relatively warm temperatures since then. As a result, the SST difference (ΔSST) between the two sites increased over time, suggesting that the SST gradient gradually developed in the northern SCS. The declining coastal SST with the increasing ΔSST likely indicates and results from the intensified East Asian winter monsoon since ∼7 ka, especially during the late Holocene. Consistent with previous terrestrial records revealing winter monsoon variability and modern observations, ΔSST between coastal and offshore sites could thus be used as an indicator of winter monsoon variability.

The Influence of Loop Current Position on Winter Sea Surface Temperatures in the Florida Straits

Abstract Influences of the Gulf of Mexico's Loop Current (LC) position on the sea surface temperature (SST) in the Florida Straits (FS) during the winter season are investigated. Satellite-derived SST data are analyzed on the basis of the LC configuration (mature or immature) as determined by satellite altimetry analyses. Cumulative distributions of FS SSTs for both LC phases during the months of January and February show greater likelihood of cooler SSTs in the FS during a mature LC than during an immature LC. This work suggests that differing transit times of LC water parcels during mature and immature phases result in differences in heat loss of the LC near-surface water. This may contribute to the observed SST differences in FS during mature and immature LC phases via temperature advection.

Effects of clouds, sea surface temperature, and its diurnal variation on precipitation efficiency

The effects of clouds, sea surface temperature, and its diurnal variation on precipitation efficiency are investigated using grid-scale data from nine equilibrium sensitivity cloud-resolving model experiments driven without large-scale vertical velocity. The precipitation efficiencies are respectively defined in surface rainfall, cloud, and rain microphysical budgets. We mathematically and physically demonstrate the relationship between these precipitation efficiencies. The 2°C increases in spatiotemporal invariant sea surface temperature (SST) from 27°C to 29°C and from 29°C to 31°C, and the inclusion of diurnal SST difference 1°C and the 1°C increase in diurnal SST difference generate opposite changes in the precipitation efficiency by changing ice cloud—radiation interactions. The radiative and microphysical processes of ice clouds have opposite effects on the precipitation efficiency because of the rainfall increase associated with the reduction in the saturation mixing ratio caused by the exclusion of radiative effects and the decrease in rainfall related to the reduction in net condensation caused by the exclusion of deposition processes. The radiative effects of water clouds on the precipitation efficiency are statistically insensitive to the radiative effects of ice clouds.

Comparison of Different Wind Stress Effects on SST and SSS in the East China Sea Region

Ocean circulations closely associated with the changes of wind system are investigated using a three-dimensional tide-circulated coupling model. Based on the coupling model, we apply different wind datasets, to some extent reflecting wind system variations associated with global climate change, but constant monthly temperature and salinity fields to assess the effect of differing wind strength stresses in the East China Sea region, leading to significant influences on hydrographic fields. In the model based on the Hellman-Rosenstein wind dataset, more distant from the mouth of the Changjiang River (Yangtze River), the Yellow Sea Warm Current strengthens because of the wind stress; weaker wind stresses may reduce the strength of the Yellow Sea Warm Current, resulting in it retreating along its path. The modeled results suggest that there is at least a 1.5°C anomaly in temperature and a 2 psu anomaly in salinity between the Changjiang River mouth and the Korean Peninsula when different wind fields are imposed in the model. The major differences in the sea surface temperature (SST) and the sea surface salinity (SSS) fields usually occur between latitudes 30°N and 35°N, which coincides with the regions having the steepest north-south temperature gradient.

A comparison of Globigerinoides ruber calcification between upwelling and non-upwelling regions in the Arabian Sea

Shell weights of planktonic foraminifera species Globigerinoides ruber in the size range of 300–355 $\upmu$ m were measured from sediment traps in the western and eastern Arabian Sea which represent upwelling and non-upwelling conditions respectively. In the Western Arabian Sea Trap (WAST), G. ruber flux ranged from 33.3 to 437.3 #/m2/day and shell weights ranged from 6.7 to 14.2 $\upmu$ g. Whereas, in the Eastern Arabian Sea Trap (EAST), flux ranged from 0.7 to 164.6 #/m2/day and shell weights ranged from 10.4 to 14.8 $\upmu$ g. Shell weights of G. ruber versus flux showed significant correlation at both the sites which reveals that shell calcification mainly depends on optimal growth conditions. Though the WAST and EAST location have distinct difference in pCO2 and sea surface temperature (SST), the shell weights of G. ruber are similar in these two regions which suggest that surface water pCO2 and SST do not show dominant influence on shell calcification on a seasonal timescale.

Future sea surface temperatures in Large Marine Ecosystems of the Northwest Atlantic

Abstract Khan, A. H., Levac, E., and Chmura, G. L. 2013. Future sea surface temperatures in Large Marine Ecosystems of the Northwest Atlantic. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 70: 915–921. We analysed projections of future sea surface temperatures (SSTs) for six Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) of the Northwest Atlantic: the West Greenland Shelf, the Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf, the Scotian Shelf, the Northeast US continental shelf, the Southeast US continental shelf, and the Gulf of Mexico. We used state-of-the-art global climate models (CSIRO-Mk3.6, GISS-E2-R) and earth system models (CanESM2, HadGEM2-ES) and representative concentration pathways (RCPs) 8.5 and 4.5 that represent a range in possible future concentrations of atmospheric CO2. Our analysis focuses on average February and August SSTs from the period 2071–2100 as the low and high temperatures of these months generally define the thermal habitat of a species. SSTs will increase in most, but not all, waters of the LMEs, and seasonality will increase in all LMEs. The difference in SSTs from the Gulf of Mexico to the Scotian Shelf may be reduced but differences will increase from the Scotian Shelf north. Although past SST changes have been greatest on the Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf, ensemble average projections indicate that the greatest future change will occur on the Scotian Shelf. The variation in future SSTs is greater among models than between RCPs, suggesting that impact studies limited to a single model may be biased.

Regional Patterns of Sea Surface Temperature Change: A Source of Uncertainty in Future Projections of Precipitation and Atmospheric Circulation*

Abstract Precipitation change in response to global warming has profound impacts on environment for life but is highly uncertain. Effects of sea surface temperature (SST) warming on the response of rainfall and atmospheric overturning circulation are investigated using Coupled Model Intercomparison Project simulations. The SST warming is decomposed into a spatially uniform SST increase (SUSI) and deviations from it. The SST pattern effect is found to be important in explaining both the multimodel ensemble mean distribution and intermodel variability of rainfall change over tropical oceans. In the ensemble mean, the annual rainfall change follows a “warmer-get-wetter” pattern, increasing where the SST warming exceeds the tropical mean, and vice versa. Two SST patterns stand out both in the ensemble mean and intermodel variability: an equatorial peak anchoring a local precipitation increase and a meridional dipole mode with increased rainfall and weakened trade winds over the warmer hemisphere. These two modes of intermodel variability in SST account for one-third of intermodel spread in rainfall projection. The SST patterns can explain up to four-fifths of the intermodel variability in intensity changes of overturning circulations. SUSI causes both the Hadley and Walker circulations to slow down, as articulated by previous studies. The weakening of the Walker circulation is robust across models as the SST pattern effect is weak. The Hadley circulation change, by contrast, is significantly affected by SST warming patterns. As a result, near and south of the equator, the Hadley circulation strength change is weak in the multimodel ensemble mean and subject to large intermodel variability due to the differences in SST warming patterns.

Stability of the Kuroshio path with respect to glacial sea level lowering

We investigate the changes of the Kuroshio Current in the East China Sea during the last glacial maximum, based on numerical experiments using an ocean model and geochemical analyses of marine sediments. Our numerical experimental results indicate that there was little effect of sea‐level change on the path of the Kuroshio during the glacial period. Geochemical proxy records of marine sediment cores recovered from inside and outside the Okinawa Trough (OT) show no significant difference in glacial sea surface temperature and planktonic foraminiferal δ18O between the OT and the Ryukyu forearc. This indicates that the glacial sea surface temperature and salinity were almost the same inside and outside the OT. Hence, during the glacial period, Kuroshio water most likely intruded into the OT and flowed along the shelf break until it drained out through the Tokara Strait.

Variations in sea surface temperatures based on alkenones in Korea Plateau sediments of the East Sea (Sea of Japan) over the last 300,000 years

Variations in long chain alkenone-based sea surface temperature (SST) from a piston core (M04-PC1A) collected from the Korea Plateau in the East Sea (Sea of Japan) were investigated to understand paleoceanographic variations over the last 300,000years. By combining sedimentological and geochemical proxies (the lithological marker of crudely laminated mud, alkenone SST, foraminiferal oxygen isotope values, and 14C age determination) and by comparison with previous works, we examined paleoceanographic variations back to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 8, approximately 300,000years B.P. In particular, analysis of alkenones suggests that SSTs were about 8°C and 11°C lower during MIS 8 and MIS 6 than that in the present-day SST, respectively. Furthermore, SST was estimated to be 5°C lower during the Last Glacial Maximum. These significant SST differences among MIS 8, 6, and 2 may be attributable to not only the formation of distinctive water masses, but also to differential alkenone synthesis under different environmental conditions. These results suggest that SSTs in the East Sea during the last three glacial periods (MIS 8, 6, and 2) were different, but rather were closely linked with regional oceanographic conditions overlapped with sensitive responses to the intensity of the East Asian monsoon. Surface-water freshening was a local paleoceanographic consequence that was imprinted in the core during MIS 2 and MIS 6, and potentially during MIS 4. Furthermore, alkenone-based SST data suggested that surface water circulation and biological productivity were strongly associated with the inflow of the Tsushima Warm Current during interglacial periods.

Assessing future climate change in the Iberian Upwelling System

Cordeiro Pires, A., Nolasco, R., Rocha, A. and Dubert, J., 2013. Assessing future climate change in the Iberian Upwelling SystemThe Western Iberian Margin is the northern limit of the Canary Upwelling System, a region of strong mesoscale activity, seasonal variability and thus very likely to be sensitive to climate change. Using a regional ocean model and data from several coupled global climate models (CGCM), climatological simulations were set up for present and for a future scenario. Forcing is obtained from averaging the outputs of an ensemble of CGCM provided by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) A2 emission scenario. Results are focused on the continental shelf (~200 m). In general, the sea surface temperature (SST) seasonal evolution shows, for the future, an increase of about 1°C during the upwelling season (April to September) and 2°C in the rest of the year, while sea surface salinity (SSS) shows a freshening of about −0.2. These results agree with a general increase in air temperature and in fresh water input resulting from ice melting in the North Pole, which characterize this future scenario. However, differences depend on latitude and distance from the coast (higher differences to the south and more offshore, respectively). Also, SSS undergoes a shift of its minimum from July to May or September. Cross-shore sections show that SST and SSS differences are mainly observed in the upper 200 m. In winter, the typical upper slope poleward flow undergoes a slight weakening and shallowing. In summer, while the upwelling jet intensifies at the surface, it is also more restricted in both width and depth.

Revisiting the Seasonal Variations of Sea-Air CO2 Fluxes in the Northern East China Sea

Temperature, salinity, chlorophyll a (Chl-a), nitrate, and sea-air differences of CO2 partial pressure (ΔpCO2) were extensively investigated in the northern East China Sea (ECS) during seven research cruises from 2003 to 2009. The ΔpCO2 showed large intraseasonal variation in the spring and summer. In spring, the areal mean ΔpCO2 in May 2004 was almost half of that in April 2008, probably associated with differences in sea surface temperature (SST). In summer, the areal mean ΔpCO2 in August 2003 was also twice as large as that in July 2006. In addition, ΔpCO2 exhibited large seasonal variation with positive values in autumn and negative values in other seasons. The positive ΔpCO2 in autumn was ascribed to vertical mixing with CO2-enriched subsurface waters and relatively high SST in this season. The annually integrated sea-air CO2 flux in the northern ECS was -2.2 ± 2.1 mol m-2 yr-1, indicating CO2 absorption from atmosphere to the sea, which was more than two times lower than the previous estimate (Shim et al. 2007) reported for the same region. This large difference was presumably responsible for the underestimation of winter CO2 influx by Shim et al. (2007) and the large interannual variation of CO2 flux. The CO2 influx in the ECS was twice that estimated for continental shelves worldwide, suggesting that the ECS acts as a strong sink of atmospheric CO2 compared to other continental shelves.

Long-term Changes in Sea Surface Temperature at Selected Locations in the Sea of Oman and the Arabian Sea off Oman

Long-term changes in the sea surface temperature (SST) at two locations off Oman were investigated using Hadley Center SST for the period 1961~2009. A mean annual increase in SST by 0.32℃ was noticed in the Sea of Oman while an increase of 0.53℃ was noticed in the western Arabian Sea. The shift in SST is higher off Muscat than off Masirah during the study period. The bi-modal variability of the SST in the study region is successfully simulated by a cyclic model developed utilizing SST data for 1961~2009 period. An increase in summer warming and decrease in winter cooling are evident in the annual SST distribution at both the locations. The decadal variability off Masirah in the western Arabian Sea showed that the standard deviation of SST switched its character post-1990. The SST variance in Sea of Oman showed a decadal-scale change but in western Arabian Sea, it was nearly unchanged until 1990 and rapidly declined post-1990 period. The large shifts in SST apparently caused higher variability in the sea surface height (SSH) anomalies post-1990 period.

The impact of coastal phytoplankton blooms on ocean‐atmosphere thermal energy exchange: Evidence from a two‐way coupled numerical modeling system

A set of sensitivity experiments are performed with a two‐way coupled and nested ocean‐atmosphere forecasting system in order to deconvolve how dense phytoplankton stocks in a coastal embayment may impact thermal energy exchange processes. Monterey Bay simulations parameterizing solar shortwave transparency in the surface ocean as an invariant oligotrophic oceanic water type estimate consistently colder sea surface temperature (SST) than simulations utilizing more realistic, spatially varying shortwave attenuation terms based on satellite estimates of surface algal pigment concentration. These SST differences lead to an ∼88% increase in the cumulative turbulent thermal energy transfer from the ocean to the atmosphere over the three month simulation period. The result is a warmer simulated atmospheric boundary layer with respective local air temperature differences approaching ∼2°C. This study suggests that the retention of shortwave solar flux by ocean flora may directly impact even short‐term forecasts of coastal meteorological variables.

Study of Arabian Seawater Temperature Fluctuations

It is well known that the ocean has an important role in climate variability and change. To study the variations in sea-surface temperature (SST) of Arabian sea near Karachi coastal region, we apply the probability distributions theory as it gives more insights of SST fluctuating behavior. In this regard the adequacy of Normal. Gamma, and Lognormal probability distributions is tested with the help of Kolmogorov-Smirnov D-test. It is found that most of the months of the year follow Normal probability distribution, whereas April, August, October, and November follow Lognormal probability distribution. Further, using the distribution parameters mean and standard deviations of monthly SST are also calculated, which come out to be (23.33 ± 0.316), (23.19 ± 0.300), (24.36 ± 0.312), (26.27 ± 0.360), (28.31 ± 0.325), (29.19 ± 0.347), (28.64 ± 0.346), (27.38 ± 0.364), (27.34 ± 0.322), (27.61 ± 0.311), (26.43 ± 0.352), (24.65 ±0.380).