Difference In Reading Time Research Articles

Indentation and reading time: a randomized control trial on the differences between generated indented and non-indented if-statements

Indentation is an old technique that emphasizes elements in source code using white spaces or tabs. But while this technique has been taught and applied for decades, evidence for its effectiveness is weak: up to 2022 relatively few experiments can be found – the present authors are only aware of one single experiment that revealed an effect of indentation and reported the effect size, but even in that experiment the effect of indentation was found to be weak. The situation changed recently, where an experiment was published that suddenly revealed a strong and large effect of indentation in control flows on reaction time. However, although the experiment provided an initial indication of a possible cause for the difference between indented and non-indented code (the length of the code that can be skipped in indented code), the evidence for this indicator was rather weak. The present paper presents a formal model on the differences in reading times (measured in terms of reaction times) between indented and non-indented code. Based on that model a controlled experiment on generated tasks was designed and executed on 27 participants (undergraduate students, PhD students, professionals). The experiment (again) confirms a strong (p < .001) and large (ηp2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\eta _{p}^{2}$$\\end{document} = .198, MNon-IndentedMIndented\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\frac{M_{Non-Indented}}{M_{Indented}}$$\\end{document} = 2.13) effect of indentation. Furthermore, it confirms that the larger the skippable code is, the larger is the difference between reading time of indented and non-indented code (p = .001, ηp2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\eta _{p}^{2}$$\\end{document} = .072). I.e., the experiment goes beyond the point “indented vs non-indented code” and explains the difference by revealing a factor that controls this difference. However, although the previous statements holds true for the whole sample in the experiment, this effect could only be shown for a subset of individual participants.

No, Bionic Reading does not work

It has recently been claimed that presenting text with the first half of each word printed in bold (as is done in this example), so-called Bionic Reading, facilitates reading. However, empirical tests of this claim are lacking, and theoretically one might expect a cost rather than a benefit. Here I tested participants' reading speed of 100 paragraphs that were presented either in ‘Bionic’ or in normal font. Statistical analyses revealed no significant difference in reading times between Bionic and normal reading. I conclude that Bionic Reading does not facilitate reading.

Flexible letter-position coding in Chinese-English L2 bilinguals: Evidence from eye movements.

Theories suggest that efficient recognition of English words depends on flexible letter-position coding, demonstrated by the fact that transposed-letter primes (e.g., JUGDE-judge) facilitate written word recognition more than substituted-letter primes (e.g., JUFBE-judge). The multiple route model predicts that reading experience should drive more flexible letter-position coding as readers transition from decoding words letter-by-letter to recognising words as wholes. This study therefore examined whether letter-position is coded flexibly in second-language English sentence reading for native Chinese speakers, and if this is influenced by English proficiency. Eye movements were measured while 54 adult native Chinese speakers read English sentences including either a real word (e.g., cheaply), a transposed-letter nonword (e.g., "chepaly"), or a substituted-letter nonword (e.g., "chegely"). Flexible letter-position coding was observed in initial and later processing stages-reading times were longer for substituted-letter than transposed-letter nonwords. In addition, reading times were longer in both initial and later processing stages for transposed-letter nonwords than real words, indicating that, despite encoding letter-position flexibly, readers processed letter-position. Although pre-registered frequentist analyses suggested that English proficiency did not predict overall reading times, Bayes Factors indicated that there was evidence for such a relationship. It is therefore likely that this proficiency analysis suffered from low power. Finally, neither frequentist nor Bayes Factor analyses suggested that English proficiency influenced the difference in reading times between different target word types, i.e., the nature of letter-position coding. Overall, these results suggest that highly proficient L2 learners code letter-position flexibly.

Deep Learning for Detection of Pneumothorax and Pleural Effusion on Chest Radiographs: Validation Against Computed Tomography, Impact on Resident Reading Time, and Interreader Concordance.

To study the performance of artificial intelligence (AI) for detecting pleural pathology on chest radiographs (CXRs) using computed tomography as ground truth. Retrospective study of subjects undergoing CXR in various clinical settings. Computed tomography obtained within 24 hours of the CXR was used to volumetrically quantify pleural effusions (PEfs) and pneumothoraxes (Ptxs). CXR was evaluated by AI software (INSIGHT CXR; Lunit) and by 3 second-year radiology residents, followed by AI-assisted reassessment after a 3-month washout period. We used the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUROC) to assess AI versus residents' performance and mixed-model analyses to investigate differences in reading time and interreader concordance. There were 96 control subjects, 165 with PEf, and 101 with Ptx. AI-AUROC was noninferior to aggregate resident-AUROC for PEf (0.82 vs 0.86, P < 0.001) and Ptx (0.80 vs 0.84, P = 0.001) detection. AI-assisted resident-AUROC was higher but not significantly different from the baseline. AI-assisted reading time was reduced by 49% (157 vs 80 s per case, P = 0.009), and Fleiss kappa for Ptx detection increased from 0.70 to 0.78 ( P = 0.003). AI decreased detection error for PEf (odds ratio = 0.74, P = 0.024) and Ptx (odds ratio = 0.39, P < 0.001). Current AI technology for the detection of PEf and Ptx on CXR was noninferior to second-year resident performance and could help decrease reading time and detection error.

Reading times of sentences with inclusive language in Spanish: a psycholinguistic study

Inclusive morphemes in Spanish, -e y -x, have begun to be used in place of generic masculine forms. In this study, we look at the processing of sentences with inclusive language from the perspective of experimental cognitive psychology and with the methodological tools of psycholinguistics. A sentence-by-sentence self-paced reading experiment examined the difference in reading times between sentences containing the traditional, masculine, generic form and sentences with gender inclusive language. The experiment was carried out in 69 monolingual speakers of River Plate Spanish: 38 young adults (between 18 and 30 years: 23 women and 15 men) and 31 older adults (between 31 and 60 years: 12 women and 19 men). Results: sentences with inclusive language were read more slowly than sentences with the generic masculine form. Surprisingly, neither age nor gender were found to have significant effects. These results suggest that reading sentences with inclusive morphemes results in a higher processing cost and that this language change is in its very early stages.

Tiempos de lectura de oraciones con lenguaje inclusivo en español: un estudio psicolingüístico

Inclusive morphemes in Spanish, -e y -x, have begun to be used in place of generic masculine forms. In this study, we look at the processing of sentences with inclusive language from the perspective of experimental cognitive psychology and with the methodological tools of psycholinguistics. A sentence-by-sentence self-paced reading experiment examined the difference in reading times between sentences containing the traditional, masculine, generic form and sentences with gender inclusive language. The experiment was carried out in 69 monolingual speakers of River Plate Spanish: 38 young adults (between 18 and 30 years: 23 women and 15 men) and 31 older adults (between 31 and 60 years: 12 women and 19 men). Results: sentences with inclusive language were read more slowly than sentences with the generic masculine form. Surprisingly, neither age nor gender were found to have significant effects. These results suggest that reading sentences with inclusive morphemes results in a higher processing cost and that this language change is in its very early stages.

Suppression of literal meaning in single and extended metaphors.

Within Relevance Theory, it has been suggested that extended metaphors might be processed differently relative to single metaphoric uses. While single metaphors are hypothesized to be understood via the creation of an ad hoc concept, extended metaphors have been claimed to require a switch to a secondary processing mode, which gives greater prominence to the literal meaning. Initial experimental evidence has supported a distinction by showing differences in reading times between single and extended metaphors. However, beyond potential differences in comprehension speed, Robyn Carston's 'lingering of the literal' account seems to predict qualitative differences in the interpretative mechanisms involved. In the present work, we test the hypothesis that during processing of extended metaphors, the mechanisms of enhancement and suppression of activation levels of literal-related features operate differently relative to single metaphors. We base our work on a study by Paula Rubio-Fernández, which showed that processing single metaphors involves suppressing features related exclusively to the literal meaning of the metaphoric vehicle after 1000 milliseconds of encountering the metaphor. Our goal was to investigate whether suppression is also involved in the comprehension of extended metaphors, or whether the 'lingering of the literal' leads to continued activation of literal-related features, as we take Carston's account to predict. We replicate existing results, in as much as we find that activation levels of literal-related features are reduced after 1000 milliseconds. Critically, we also show that the pattern of suppression does not hold for extended metaphors, for which literal-related features remain activated after 1000 milliseconds. We see our results as providing support for Carston's view that extended metaphor processing involves a prominent role of literal meaning, contributing towards explicating the links between theoretical predictions within Relevance Theory and online sentence processing.

Examining Comparative Effect of Reading Methods On Reading Comprehension

The present experiment investigated whether different reading methods would have any effect on reading comprehension performance. It was hypothesized that reading comprehensive performance would be better with subvocalization than other reading methods. The independent variable was reading methods and the dependent variable was performance (speed and accuracy). To conduct this experiment, 60 school students were taken with age ranges from 8 to 10 years. The Latin Square design was used to conduct this experiment. Recall scores were obtained for each participant in terms of four reading methods: silent reading, subvocalization, reading aloud and listening music while reading. Results of the One-way ANOVA and Post Hoc test showed that only reading time vary among four reading methods. Multiple comparisons showed that there is a significant difference in reading time between silent reading and reading aloud. So, the result did not support the hypothesis of subvocalization as a better reading method. Dhaka Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 31(2): 225-230, 2022 (July)

Déjà-lu: When Orthographic Representations are Generated in the Absence of Orthography.

When acquiring novel spoken words, English-speaking children generate preliminary orthographic representations even before seeing the words' spellings (Wegener et al., 2018). Interestingly, these orthographic skeletons are generated even when novel words' spellings are uncertain, at least in transparent languages like Spanish (Jevtović et al., 2022). Here we investigate whether this process depends on the orthographic rules of the language, and specifically, whether orthographic skeletons for words with uncertain spellings are generated even when the probability of generating an incorrect representation is high. Forty-six French adults first acquired novel words via aural instruction and were then presented with words' spellings in a self-paced reading task. Importantly, novel words were presented in their unique (consistent words) or one of their two possible spellings (preferred and unpreferred inconsistent words). A significant reading advantage observed for aurally acquired words indicates that participants indeed generated orthographic representations before encountering novel words' spellings. However, while no differences in reading times were found for aurally acquired words with unique and those presented in their preferred spellings, unpreferred spellings yielded significantly longer reading times. This shows that orthographic skeletons for words with multiple spellings were generated even in a language in which the risk of generating an incorrect representation is high. This finding raises a possibility that generating orthographic skeletons during spoken word learning may be beneficial. In line with this conclusion is the finding showing that - in interaction with good phonological short-term memory capacity - generating orthographic skeletons is linked to better word recall.

Examination of distraction and discomfort caused by using glare monitors: a simultaneous electroencephalography and eye-tracking study.

Since the COVID-19 pandemic started, remote work and education and digital display use have become more prevalent. However, compared with printed material, digital displays cause more eye fatigue and may decrease task performance. For instance, the reflections on the monitor can cause discomfort or distraction, particularly when glare monitors are used with black backgrounds. This study simultaneously uses electroencephalography (EEG) and an eye-tracker to measure the possible negative effects of using a glare monitor on the illegibility of sentences. The experiment results showed no difference in reading time and subjective illegibility rating between glare and non-glare monitors. However, with glare monitors, eye fixation when reading lasted longer. Further, EEG beta (15-20 Hz) power variations suggested that the participants were less engaged in the reading task when a glare monitor was used with a black background. These results indicate that the negative effects of using a glare monitor are subtle but certainly present. They also show that physiological measures such as EEG and eye tracking can assess the subtle effects in an objective manner, even if behavioral measures such as subjective illegibility ratings or reading time may not show the differences.

어순 교체에 따른 한국어 피동문 실시간 처리 연구 - 일본인 학습자를 대상으로 -

This study investigated whether L1 Japanese learners of Korean can acquire the word order alternations of the Korean passive. In self-paced reading, Korean native speakers (n = 30) showed greater sensitivity to structural cues than semantic ones, while Japanese L2 Korean speakers (n = 60) showed no difference in reading time, regardless of proficiency, as well as showing no sensitivity to structural or semantic cues. These results indicate that Japanese L2 Korean speakers have difficulty with the on-line processing of sentences despite the morphological congruency between L1 and L2.

Computer-aided detection improves brain metastasis identification on non-enhanced CT in less experienced radiologists.

Brain metastases (BMs) are the most common intracranial tumors causing neurological complications associated with significant morbidity and mortality. To evaluate the effect of computer-aided detection (CAD) on the performance of observers in detecting BMs on non-enhanced computed tomography (NECT). Three less experienced and three experienced radiologists interpreted 30 NECT scans with 89 BMs in 25 cases to detect BMs with and without the assistance of CAD. The observers' sensitivity, number of false positives (FPs), positive predictive value (PPV), and reading time with and without CAD were compared using paired t-tests. The sensitivity of CAD and the observers were compared using a one-sample t-test. With CAD, less experienced radiologists' sensitivity significantly increased from 27.7% ± 4.6% to 32.6% ± 4.8% (P = 0.007), while the experienced radiologists' sensitivity did not show a significant difference (from 33.3% ± 3.5% to 31.9% ± 3.7%; P = 0.54). There was no significant difference between conditions with CAD and without CAD for FPs (less experienced radiologists: 23.0 ± 10.4 and 25.0 ± 9.3; P = 0.32; experienced radiologists: 18.3 ± 7.4 and 17.3 ± 6.7; P = 0.76) and PPVs (less experienced radiologists: 57.9% ± 8.3% and 50.9% ± 7.0%; P = 0.14; experienced radiologists: 61.8% ± 12.7% and 64.0% ± 12.1%; P = 0.69). There were no significant differences in reading time with and without CAD (85.0 ± 45.6 s and 73.7 ± 36.7 s; P = 0.09). The sensitivity of CAD was 47.2% (with a PPV of 8.9%), which was significantly higher than that of any radiologist (P < 0.001). CAD improved BM detection sensitivity on NECT without increasing FPs or reading time among less experienced radiologists, but this was not the case among experienced radiologists.

Towards a standardisation of reading charts: Font effects on reading performance-Times New Roman with serifs versus the sans serif font Helvetica.

The purpose was to compare systematically the legibility of a font without serifs (Helvetica) and one with serifs (Times New Roman). Three paragraphs that were equal in the number of words, syllables, characters, difficulty and reading length were printed at equal size, with equal spacing between the lines and equal layout (paperback style), in either the sans serif typeface Helvetica Neue T1 55 Roman (Adobe) or the serif typeface Times New Roman PS Roman (Adobe). They were also printed in newspaper format in the serif font. The paragraphs were presented in random order (Latin square design) to 36 participants between 18 and 38 years of age (wearing their best-corrected visual acuity). Reading duration was measured with a stopwatch. Reading time, reading speed and the number of reading errors were compared. For the paperback layout, no significant difference in reading time (p=0.50) or reading speed (p=0.56) was found between the two fonts. The correlation between the two fonts was high for both reading time and speed (r=0.93). The mean number of reading errors was the same (0.31 ±0.58 errors/text) for both fonts. There was a significant difference in reading time and speed between the paperback and the newspaper layout. The legibility of Helvetica and Times New Roman is similar when investigated under equivalent conditions. Thus, these two font types can be used as interchangeable standard typefaces.

The processing of ambiguous pronominal reference is sensitive to depth of processing

Previous studies on the processing of ambiguous pronominal reference have led to contradictory results: some suggested that ambiguity may hinder processing (Stewart, Holler, &amp;amp; Kidd, 2007), while others showed an ambiguity advantage (Grant, Sloggett, &amp;amp; Dillon, 2020) similar to what has been reported for structural ambiguities. This study provides a conceptual replication of Stewart et al. (2007, Experiment 1), to examine whether the discrepancy in earlier results is caused by the processing depth that participants engage in (cf. Swets, Desmet, Clifton, &amp;amp; Ferreira, 2008). We present the results from a word-by-word self-paced reading experiment with Dutch sentences that contained a personal pronoun in an embedded clause that was either ambiguous or disambiguated through gender features. Depth of processing of the embedded clause was manipulated through offline comprehension questions. The results showed that the difference in reading times for ambiguous versus unambiguous sentences depends on the processing depth: a significant ambiguity penalty was found under deep processing but not under shallow processing. No significant ambiguity advantage was found, regardless of processing depth. This replicates the results in Stewart et al. (2007) using a different methodology and a larger sample size for appropriate statistical power. These findings provide further evidence that ambiguous pronominal reference resolution is a flexible process, such that the way in which ambiguous sentences are processed depends on the depth of processing of the relevant information. Theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.

Impact of Concurrent Use of Artificial Intelligence Tools on Radiologists Reading Time: A Prospective Feasibility Study

This study investigated how an AI tool impacted radiologists reading time for non-contrast chest CT exams. An AI tool was implemented into the PACS reading workflow of non-contrast chest CT exams between April and May 2020. The reading time was recorded for one CONSULTANT RADIOLOGIST and one RADIOLOGY RESIDENT by an external observer. After each case radiologists answered questions regarding additional findings and perceived case overview. Reading times were recorded for 25 cases without and 20 cases with AI tool assistance for each reader. Differences in reading time with and without the AI tool were assessed using Welch's t-test for non-inferiority with non-inferiority limits defined as 100 seconds for the consultant and 200 seconds for the resident. The mean reading time for the radiology resident was not significantly affected by the AI tool (without AI 370s vs with AI 437s; +67s 95% CI -28s to +163s, p = 0.16). The reading time for the radiology consultant was also not significantly affected by the AI tool (without AI 366s vs with AI 380s; +13s (95% CI - -57s to 84s, p = 0.70). The AI tool led to additional actionable findings in 5/40 (12.5%) studies and better overview in 18/20 (90%) of studies for the resident. A PACS based implementation of an AI tool for concurrent reading of chest CT exams did not increase reading time with additional actionable findings made as well as a perceived better case overview for the radiology resident.

Indeterminate and Enriched Propositions in Context Linger: Evidence From an Eye-Tracking False Memory Paradigm.

A sentence such as We finished the paper is indeterminate with regards to what we finished doing with the paper. Indeterminate sentences constitute a test case for two major issues regarding language comprehension: (1) how we compose sentence meaning; and (2) what is retained in memory about what we read in context over time. In an eye-tracking experiment, participants read short stories that were unexpectedly followed by one of three recognition probes: (a) an indeterminate sentence (Lisa began the book), that is identical to the one in the story; (b) an enriched but false probe (Lisa began reading the book); and (c) a contextually unrelated probe (Lisa began writing the book). The probes were presented either at the offset of the original indeterminate sentence in context or following additional neutral discourse. We measured accuracy, probe recognition time, and reading times of the probe sentences. Results showed that, at the immediate time point, participants correctly accepted the identical probes with high accuracy and short recognition times, but that this effect reversed to chance-level accuracy and significantly longer recognition times at the delayed time point. We also found that participants falsely accept the enriched probe at both time points 50% of the time. There were no reading-time differences between identical and enriched probes, suggesting that enrichment might not be an early, mandatory process for indeterminate sentences. Overall, results suggest that while context produces an enriched proposition, an unenriched proposition true to the indeterminate sentence also lingers in memory.

Contextual congruency and novel metaphor integration

Abstract The goal of this paper is to further our understanding of how novel metaphor sentences are processed at a discourse level. Previous studies have focused on contextual issues during the processing of sentences containing conventional metaphors, with the effect of context on sentences with novel metaphors less studied. Accordingly, we determined the effects of contextual congruency on novel metaphor sentences in short texts by conducting two on-line reading experiments. We adopted Conceptual Mapping Model in order to create sentences with two types of novel metaphor (1) sentences with novel metaphors that follow mapping principles (considered to be comparatively less novel) and (2) sentences with novel metaphors that do not follow mapping principles (considered to be comparatively more novel). In Experiment 1, conventional metaphor scenarios were preceded by congruent novel metaphor sentences following mapping principles and those not following mapping principles. In Experiment 2, conventional metaphor scenarios were preceded by incongruent novel metaphor sentences following mapping principles and those not following mapping principles. Results showed that congruent novel metaphor sentences following mapping principles were read faster than those not following mapping principles in conventional metaphor scenarios (Experiment 1), while there was a marginal difference in reading times between incongruent novel metaphor sentences following and those not following mapping principles, but not in the expected direction (Experiment 2). Our research supports previous work that shows that congruency plays a large role in assimilating new information, and also provides further evidence for the role of mapping principles in the creation and processing of novel metaphors.

중국인 한국어 학습자의 한국어 조사 교체 습득 연구 - 양태성 이동동사 구문을 중심으로 -

This study investigated whether L1 Chinese learners of Korean can acquire case particle alternation in motion verb constructions. An acceptability judgment and self-paced reading task were conducted with L2 advanced learners of Korean in tandem with native Korean speakers. The result of the acceptability judgment task demonstrated that the L1 group accepted the sentences in both case-marking conditions, whereas the L2 groups (both higher and lower proficiency learners) only accepted the sentences in the ‘ul/lul’ condition, while rejecting the sentences in the ‘eseo’ condition. From the results of the self-paced reading task, L2 participants did not show any reading time differences between the two case-marking conditions. However, given that the L2 learners failed to demonstrate target-like knowledge of ‘in manner of motion’ verb construction in the acceptability judgment task, their reading-time patterns in the self-paced reading task may not be interpreted as their acceptance of both conditions. These findings suggest that the L1 Chinese-speaking learners of Korean have a persistent difficulty acquiring the case alternation regarding motion verb construction. (Ewha Womans University)

The Effect of Mood on Predictive Sentence Processing by Older Adults

This study examined the effect of mood on predictive sentence processing by older adults. A self-paced reading task was implemented among a group of younger adults and older adults to measure their performance in online sentence processing. Half of the sentences were highly predictable, whereas the other half were lowly predictable. Music was used to induce positive or negative mood. Results show that in the positive mood condition, highly predictable sentences were processed more efficiently than lowly predictable sentences in both older and younger adults, but no significant age difference was found in the effect of predictability. In the negative mood condition, younger adults processed highly predictable sentences more efficiently than lowly predictable sentences, but there was no significant difference in reading times between the different types of sentences in older adults. The findings suggest that predictive sentence processing might be inhibited by negative mood in older adults. Practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Experimental Research on English Reading Behavior Based on E-Prime System

Guided by the framework of structural construction and based on the E-Prime experimental generation system, the reading time method and detection technology are used to investigate the differences of reading comprehension between conditional adverbial clauses which presented by two ways — preposition and postposition among native Chinese college students. It is found that there are significant differences in reading time and understanding between the preposition and postposition of conditional adverbial clauses in English reading. The results show that both at the sentence level and at the text level, the postposition structure is more difficult to characterize than the preposition structure, which affects the reading speed and the accuracy of understanding. The study aims to improve English reading teaching.