Development Of Nuclear Weapons Research Articles

AN APPEAL TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE CHAIRMAN OF THE PRESIDIUM OF THE U.S.S.R. SUPREME SOVIET

The growing threat of thermonuclear war and the continued development and proliferation of nuclear weapons have compelled us as physicians to examine in detail the consequences such a war would have on the people of our nations and of the world, whose health and survival are our professional commitment. During the past several days, physicians and scientists from 31 countries have gathered to consider relevant data on the immediate and long term effects of a nuclear conflict. We were unanimous in concluding that: . . . The growth in sheer numbers of nuclear weapons and the increasing complexity and sophistication of delivery systems increase the possibility that a nuclear conflict may be triggered by tragic accident. Physicians are aware from their daily work that technologic systems are liable to malfunction and that human performance may fail because of mental derangement or even simple error. Whereas such failures in medicine may jeopardise a single life, the malfunctioning of military systems may now endanger the existence of humanity....

J Robert Oppenheimer

Peter Goodchild 1980 London: BBC 301 pp price £9.95 I do not think it is really a compliment to have a biography of you subtitled 'shatterer of worlds', even if the biography is the book of a TV documentary, and you were one of the leaders of the development of nuclear weapons. The rather sad photograph of Oppenheimer on the front cover of the fat coffee table-ish book is balanced by that on the back, of a nuclear explosion and a quote implying that Oppenheimer was doing only basic research – others used his results for evil ends.

Indices of World Tension in The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (The Bulletin) was founded shortly after the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japan. Its founders were primarily scientists who had been involved in the projects leading to the development of nuclear weapons. Shocked by this dramatic evidence of the potentially disastrous effects of science upon human survival, they formed a group dedicated to publicizing the technical and social issues involved. The Bulletin publishes articles dealing with such scientific and technological issues as the power and yield of nuclear weapons, the detectability of explosions, and the construction of reactors; and with such nontechnical issues as ethical and educational concerns in science, the political background of arms limitation negotiations, domestic pressures related to security, and the international communication of scientific discoveries. Throughout the 36 years of its existence, The Bulletin has taken as its major focus the stability of peace in the world and the dangers posed to that stability by various national and international events.

Pulsed spallation neutron sources

The discovery of the neutron in 1932, which indirectly led to the potentially catastrophic development of nuclear weapons on the one hand and to the beneficial development of nuclear‐generated electricity on the other, has had another, less well‐known, but scientifically important consequence: the provision of a uniquely sensitive and pervasive tool for probing condensed matter. Because they are neutral and because they interact mainly with nuclei, neutrons can penetrate into bulk material and provide information that is difficult to obtain with x rays or charged particles. Until recently, nuclear reactors provided the highest‐intensity neutron sources. But lately another kind of source is promising to overcome the limitations of reactors. In these sources high‐energy protons are made to collide with heavy nuclei, splitting off a large number of neutrons. The process is rather like making chips fly by hitting a rock with a hammer—what the geologists call “spallation.” These neutron spallation sources together with equipment such as that shown in figure 1 have already begun to provide us with useful information accessible in no other way.

The public and nuclear waste management

Nuclear weapon development, use, and secrecy during World War II are reviewed briefly. The public did not violently react to nuclear weapons during the war; and immediately following the war the reactions were not violent concerning the previous restrictions. With the development following the war, though, of the scientific community, the secrecy that served the country so well became dysfunctional. Then, the public learned the facts about nuclear debris and began to establish opinions about its safety, etc., when utilized peacefully. The author says some progress has been made in that there is a reduction in newspaper accounts and public opinion polls linking nuclear reactors and the mushroom cloud. The two issues now at the center of attention deal with (1) the increased potential for diversion and theft of enriched uranium and plutonium, particularly if the breeder reactor is developed, and (2) the problem of how to deal with nuclear wastes. Global debates and opinions on these issues are reviewed. But as the past secret nuclear activities are revealed, the public has become increasingly skeptical. The challenge for scientists is twofold: the need to put into perspective within the community the limits to scientific knowledge, while at the same timemore » interpreting this knowledge in its proper perspective to the public. There are no technologies that do not involve tradeoffs or risks. The public has yet to be educated about these facts. (MCW)« less

Nuclear energy and nuclear proliferation

I have been asked to provide a brief comment as a basis for discussion of the relationship between nuclear electric power and nuclear weapons development. This relationship is central to any policy...

China's Nuclear Development Program

Research Article| June 01 1976 China's Nuclear Development Program Michael S. Minor Michael S. Minor Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Far Eastern Survey (1947) 16 (6): 571–579. https://doi.org/10.2307/2643520 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Michael S. Minor; China's Nuclear Development Program. Far Eastern Survey 26 March 1947; 16 (6): 571–579. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2643520 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All ContentAsian Survey Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1976 The Regents of the University of California Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Implementation of personnel safety feature standards on radiation facilities in an industrial plant.

The Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant is a nuclear weapon component production and development complex operated by Union Carbide Corporation for the United States Atomic Energy Commission. More than 100 x-ray or radiograpbic source units required to carry out the plant's mission are in the process of being upgraded to meet the Personnel Safety Feature Standards developed by representatives of the plant's maintenance, engineering, operations, and radiation safety groups. The development and general implementation of the standards are outlined. Examples, selected to illustrate how specific standards have been implemented and how this implementation has improved radiation safety, are presented in detail.

Sweden's Debate on the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Superpower development of tactical nuclear weapons appeared to alter the nature of land combat in the early 1950's. By 1954, the military and the Conservative party ad vocated acquisition of such weapons for Sweden's defense. The other political parties and the Government were ambivalent. In particular, conflicting opinions within the ruling Social Democratic party threatened party unity at a point when the party could least afford the cleavages an atomic weapons decision would create. Seizing on the dual issues of nuclear disarmament and inadequate technical capabilities, the Government successfully pursued a policy of postponing a decision for nearly fif teen years. By the late 1960's, the vast arsenals of the superpowers and progress in disarmament efforts made it possible for the Government to officially decide not to acquire nuclear weapons.

Sweden's Debate on the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Superpower development of tactical nuclear weapons appeared to alter the nature of land combat in the early 1950's. By 1954, the military and the Conservative party advocated acquisition of such weapons for Sweden's defense. The other political parties and the Government were ambivalent. In particular, conflicting opinions within the ruling Social Democratic party threatened party unity at a point when the party could least afford the cleavages an atomic weapons decision would create. Seizing on the dual issues of nuclear disarmament and inadequate technical capabilities, the Government successfully pursued a policy of postponing a decision for nearly fifteen years. By the late 1960's, the vast arsenals of the superpowers and progress in disarmament efforts made it possible for the Government to officially decide not to acquire nuclear weapons.

Otto Hahn: Autobiographical Notes

As discoverer of nuclear fission, Otto Hahn has become the outstanding example of the scientist, working out of pure scientific curiosity, in an area as remote as possible from all practical applications, initiating a technical revolution—immediately in warfare and with some delay but equally if not more importantly in the whole energy household of mankind.Otto Hahn was quoted as having contemplated suicide on hearing, during his internment in England, of the holocaust in Hiroshima. He was one of the original signatories of the declaration of German scientists refusing to take part in the development of nuclear weapons in Germany. He is thus deeply concerned with the tragic consequences of his discoveries; but in his memoirs, he avoids any mention of them. He reverts to the role of the scientist concerned only with the progress of research and discovery in his chosen field. He tells his scientific life story with a modesty and humor which few of his peers are likely to match. What emerges is a sympathetic...

Otto Hahn: Autobiographical Notes

As discoverer of nuclear fission, Otto Hahn has become the outstanding example of the scientist, working out of pure scientific curiosity, in an area as remote as possible from all practical applications, initiating a technical revolution—immediately in warfare and with some delay but equally if not more importantly in the whole energy household of mankind.Otto Hahn was quoted as having contemplated suicide on hearing, during his internment in England, of the holocaust in Hiroshima. He was one of the original signatories of the declaration of German scientists refusing to take part in the development of nuclear weapons in Germany. He is thus deeply concerned with the tragic consequences of his discoveries; but in his memoirs, he avoids any mention of them. He reverts to the role of the scientist concerned only with the progress of research and discovery in his chosen field. He tells his scientific life story with a modesty and humor which few of his peers are likely to match. What emerges is a sympathetic...

Nuclear Weapons Development in China

The author is a consultant on military and political affairs and has been associated with the Office of National Security Studies of Bendix Systems Division, and the Institute for Defense Analyses.

From Friendship to Comradeship: The Change in Personal Relations in Communist China

The detonation of a nuclear device by the People's Republic of China on October 16, 1964, made it unmistakably clear that China attached a very high priority to becoming a militarily effective nuclear power as soon as possible. Although the effect on Chinese economic development has probably been relatively limited thus far, the Chinese are devoting substantial resources to their nuclear programme and may be expected to have militarily effective systems within this decade. The Chinese appear to be considerably further along in the development of nuclear weapons and delivery systems than had been previously anticipated.

China and the Bomb—Chinese Nuclear Strategy

The detonation of a nuclear device by the People's Republic of China on October 16, 1964, made it unmistakably clear that China attached a very high priority to becoming a militarily effective nuclear power as soon as possible. Although the effect on Chinese economic development has probably been relatively limited thus far, the Chinese are devoting substantial resources to their nuclear programme and may be expected to have militarily effective systems within this decade. The Chinese appear to be considerably further along in the development of nuclear weapons and delivery systems than had been previously anticipated.

Gensuikyō and the Peace Movement in Japan

The basic split which rent the Ninth World Conference Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs last August 6, 1963, has far wider implications than just the continued existence of the organization under whose auspices it was held. That organization, known by its abbreviation, Gensuiky5, which stands for Gensuibaku Kinshi Nihon Ky5gikai (Japan Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs), has been a focal point ever since 1955 for cooperation among most of the organizations in Japan that have been striving for that elusive objective-peace. This affects not only the whole movement in Japan, but repercussions may eventually reach Japanese-American relations. By movement is meant the mobilization of the fear of war and of its accompanying horrors.' But to become politically effective, any such mobilization must center around some issue, such as rearmament, the Security Treaty, or opposition to nuclear testing. It can be argued that the widespread but unorganized peace sentiment, that became legal with the surrender, initially aided in making acceptable the American Occupation and its early reforms, most notably the new Constitution with its no-war and no-armaments clauses of Article 9. But later, when policy shifted to aligning Japan with the West in the Cold War, this sentiment became an obstacle to the rearmament of Japan at a faster pace. Since the Occupation, the opposition Socialists and Communists have mobilized and exploited this sentiment in numerous organizations which together constitute the peace movement. Beyond that, it has undoubtedly contributed to the steady growth of the popular vote for the combined opposition, which for the first time gained over 40% of the popular vote in the November 1963 election. The one peace issue with the broadest mass appeal in postwar Japan has been that of opposing the development and testing of nuclear weapons.2 The growth and mobilization of this sentiment may be divided into four phases: (1) to the end of the Occupation; (2) to the Bikini

E. O. Lawrence Memorial Award

THE Atomic Energy Commission's Ernest Orlando Lawrence Memorial Award for 1961, conferred by the Commission on scientists less than 45 years old who have made “recent, especially meritorious contributions to the development, use or control of atomic energy,” was presented on April 28 to five scientists. Three of the $5000 awards went to physicists: Henry Hurwitz, Jr. (General Electric Research Laboratories, Schenectady), cited for his contributions to reactor theory and design; Conrad L. Longmire (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory), for his theoretical investigations in the fields of nuclear weapons development and plasma physics; and Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky (High Energy Physics Laboratory, Stanford), for his work in nuclear physics and the international control of nuclear testing. Leo Brewer (Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley), received the award for singular contributions and leadership in the development of high‐temperature chemistry which have permitted major advances in reactor development, and K. G. Wilzbach (Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Ill.), for his development of methods of tritium labelling of biologically important compounds which have permitted major advances in biology and medicine.

Superior Orders, Nuclear Warfare, and the Dictates of Conscience: The Dilemma of Military Obedience in the Atomic Age

When Francis Gary Powers was asked by the presiding judge of the Soviet military tribunal trying him for espionage whether he had not considered the possibility that his U-2 flight might provoke armed conflict, the captured pilot answered, “The people who sent me should think of these things. My job was to carry out orders. I do not think it was my responsibility to make such decisions.” This article deals with a similar problem, a predicament which to this day, fortunately, has remained hypothetical, but which may become distressingly real at some time in the future. It concerns the unenviable position of the military subordinate commanded to use nuclear weapons, who may be punished today if he disobeys and prosecuted tomorrow if he obeys. The discussion initially evolves around three issues in international law: (1) the validity of the plea of superior orders as a defense in war crimes trials; (2) the question of the legality of using nuclear weapons; and (3) the present status and future of the law of war. That these problem areas are intimately related should become clear as we proceed.The disregard for humanitarian and moral considerations which has increasingly characterized the conduct of war in the twentieth century, and, more recently, the development of nuclear weapons—the tools of mass extermination par excellence—have led many students of international law to conclude that the laws of war are dead. Grotius' doctrine of the temperamenta belli, requiring belligerents to conduct hostilities with regard for the principles of humanity and chivalry, as well as the many conventions drawn up prior to World War I in order to regulate the use of violence, are said to have become largely obsolete.

Superior Orders, Nuclear Warfare, and the Dictates of Conscience: The Dilemma of Military Obedience in the Atomic Age

When Francis Gary Powers was asked by the presiding judge of the Soviet military tribunal trying him for espionage whether he had not considered the possibility that his U-2 flight might provoke armed conflict, the captured pilot answered, “The people who sent me should think of these things. My job was to carry out orders. I do not think it was my responsibility to make such decisions.” This article deals with a similar problem, a predicament which to this day, fortunately, has remained hypothetical, but which may become distressingly real at some time in the future. It concerns the unenviable position of the military subordinate commanded to use nuclear weapons, who may be punished today if he disobeys and prosecuted tomorrow if he obeys. The discussion initially evolves around three issues in international law: (1) the validity of the plea of superior orders as a defense in war crimes trials; (2) the question of the legality of using nuclear weapons; and (3) the present status and future of the law of war. That these problem areas are intimately related should become clear as we proceed.The disregard for humanitarian and moral considerations which has increasingly characterized the conduct of war in the twentieth century, and, more recently, the development of nuclear weapons—the tools of mass extermination par excellence—have led many students of international law to conclude that the laws of war are dead. Grotius' doctrine of the temperamenta belli, requiring belligerents to conduct hostilities with regard for the principles of humanity and chivalry, as well as the many conventions drawn up prior to World War I in order to regulate the use of violence, are said to have become largely obsolete.

Consistent reactive participation of group members and reduction of intergroup conflict

ogy. Violent solutions of such conflicts in the past are debatable as long-run solutions of competing interests, but, with the development of atomic and nuclear weapons, the common interest in survival has given reality to the pacifist's old contention about the ultimate absurdity of force as the solution of human problems. The brotherhood of man, writes C. Wright Mills, now less a goal than an obvious condition of biological survival. Before the world is made safe