Detergent Bars Research Articles

Investigation of Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Stainless Steel Surface and Their Effect on the Appearance Aspects of the Alloy Surface

Stainless steel alloy SS-304 is widely used in many engineering applications primarily for its excellent corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication and aesthetic appeal. Many kitchen appliances are made from SS-304 alloy because of its durability, ease of cleaning and beautiful finish. However, over the years of continuous usage and cleaning by detergent bar and abrasive clothes the initial brightness and shine of the plates and dishes undergo considerable degradation. In this work, we report the results of a thorough investigation of the physico-chemical characteristics of the surface regions of both new and old SS-304 plates of known history of continuous usage to identify the key physical and chemical factors that are responsible for the loss of shine. Several analytical techniques viz. SEM/EDX, AFM, XPS, XRD, Reflectance FTIR, Profilometry and Reflectance spectrometry in the visible region have been used for experimental investigation of surface structure, morphology, roughness profile, chemical composition and appearance measurements of several steel samples. In addition, glossmeter has been used to measure the gloss of the samples at certain specific angles. It seems that surface roughness is one of the key physical parameters that play an important role in the reduction of brightness and shine. The other parameter is the presence of a thin surface film on the steel surface. In order to analyze the experimental data and to predict the shine and brightness phenomena quantitatively, we have used Fresnel’s theory to compute first the reflectance from each component of SS-304 alloy assuming it to be a smooth surface and then extended it to compute the reflectance of the alloy surface (SS-304). In order to interpret the reflectance from old and used plates, we have further used Beckmann’s theory of light scattering from random rough surface to analyze and predict the appearance aspects of the alloy surface quantitatively. Both the experimental and computed results show good agreement, thus validating the reflectance model used for computing the reflectance from SS-304 alloy surface and the appropriateness of Beckmann’s model of random rough surface.

Irritancy potential of 17 detergents used commonly by the Indian household

Detergents are used by almost every household in the developed and developing world. Soap and most detergents are anionic surfactants and attack the horny layer of the skin and increase its permeability with little or no inflammatory change and may result in hand eczema, which is very distressing and incapacitating. To evaluate the irritant potential of common household detergents (laundry and dish wash) used by the Indian population using a 24-hour patch test and to convincingly educate the patients on the detergents less likely to cause irritation in the particular individual. Seventeen commonly used detergents found in Indian market were included in the study, of which, 12 were laundry detergents (powders--seven, bar soap--five) and five were dish wash detergents (powder--one, liquid--one, bar soap--three). The irritant potential of the 17 detergents were evaluated in 30 volunteers. Thirty microliters of each of the detergent bar solutions, distilled water (negative control), and 20% SDS (positive control) were applied to Finn chambers with a micropipette and occluded for 24 hours. Erythema, scaling, and edema were graded in comparison to the reaction at the negative control site (distilled water) for each volunteer separately. The scoring of erythema/dryness and wrinkling on a 0-4 point scale and edema on another 0-4 point scale was based on the Draize scale. The pH of each of the detergent solutions was determined using litmus papers (Indikrom papers from Qualigens fine chemicals). The difference between detergents (F value) was significant for erythema/dryness and wrinkling (F = 3.374; p = 0.000), but not significant for edema (F = 1.297; p = 0.194). [Table 2] lists the means for erythema/dryness and wrinkling, and edema. The F value of the totals of the means for erythema/dryness and wrinkling and edema was significant (F = 2.495; p = 0.001). The pH of all the detergents was found to be alkaline except Pril utensil cleaner which tested acidic (pH 6). The positive control, 20% SDS also tested acidic (pH 6). Similar to patch testing in allergic contact dermatitis, 24-hour patch testing with detergent solutions (8% w/v), will educate the patient on what detergent to avoid. This may bring down the total medication requirement and frequent hospital consultations for these patients.

The effect of two skin cleansing systems on moderate xerotic eczema*1

Background Moderate xerotic eczema, characterized by stratum corneum desquamation, erythema, and pruritis is a common condition that can be induced or worsened by skin cleansing. Traditional dermatologic therapy includes the use of emollients, medium or high potency topical corticosteroids, and a change in bathing habits. Objective To investigate the effect of two cleansing systems: a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a cotton washcloth and a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff as part of a topical treatment approach to moderate xerotic eczema. Method Sixty patients with moderate xerotic eczema were enrolled in a 4-week investigator-blinded study. Half were randomly treated with a strong topical corticosteroid cream (0.05% fluocinonide) and a traditional cleansing system consisting of a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a washcloth. The remaining patients were treated with a weaker, medium strength topical corticosteroid cream (0.1% triamcinolone acetonide) and a novel cleansing system consisting of a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff. Dermatologist investigator evaluations and patient self-assessments were conducted at baseline, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks. Results Patients using the novel petrolatum-delivering body wash and polyethylene puff cleansing system and the lower potency corticosteroid cream demonstrated significantly greater clinical improvement than those patients using the traditional cleansing system of a synthetic detergent beauty bar and washcloth system and the higher potency corticosteroid cream after both 2 and 4 weeks of treatment. Conclusion The cleansing system of a petrolatum-delivering body wash delivered by a polyethylene puff may be useful as a cleanser for patients with moderate xerotic eczema.

The effect of two skin cleansing systems on moderate xerotic eczema

Background Moderate xerotic eczema, characterized by stratum corneum desquamation, erythema, and pruritis is a common condition that can be induced or worsened by skin cleansing. Traditional dermatologic therapy includes the use of emollients, medium or high potency topical corticosteroids, and a change in bathing habits. Objective To investigate the effect of two cleansing systems: a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a cotton washcloth and a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff as part of a topical treatment approach to moderate xerotic eczema. Method Sixty patients with moderate xerotic eczema were enrolled in a 4-week investigator-blinded study. Half were randomly treated with a strong topical corticosteroid cream (0.05% fluocinonide) and a traditional cleansing system consisting of a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a washcloth. The remaining patients were treated with a weaker, medium strength topical corticosteroid cream (0.1% triamcinolone acetonide) and a novel cleansing system consisting of a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff. Dermatologist investigator evaluations and patient self-assessments were conducted at baseline, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks. Results Patients using the novel petrolatum-delivering body wash and polyethylene puff cleansing system and the lower potency corticosteroid cream demonstrated significantly greater clinical improvement than those patients using the traditional cleansing system of a synthetic detergent beauty bar and washcloth system and the higher potency corticosteroid cream after both 2 and 4 weeks of treatment. Conclusion The cleansing system of a petrolatum-delivering body wash delivered by a polyethylene puff may be useful as a cleanser for patients with moderate xerotic eczema.

Role of different valence states of chromium in the elicitation of allergic contact dermatitis.

Chromium, a known contact sensitizer, is present at high levels in certain detergent bars (40-50 p.p.m.) sold in India. A concern was whether chromium present in such detergent bars could sensitize users or their use lead to the elicitation of allergic contact dermatitis. Chromium present in detergent bars was analyzed for its valence state. It was found to be trivalent [Cr (III)] and not hexavalent [Cr (VI)]. An elicitation test on normal volunteers, as well as on volunteers who were sensitive to chromium, was carried out to determine the elicitation potential of chromium (III) in the bars. Of the 48 volunteers who completed the study, 30 did not show any positive response to either potassium dichromate, the positive control, or the detergent bar containing chromium (III). 18 volunteers who were identified as chromium-sensitive showed a positive response to potassium dichromate but not to the detergent bar containing trivalent chromium. This study clearly showed that the detergent bar with 40-50 p.p.m. of trivalent chromium did not elicit any allergic contact dermatitis even in individuals known to be chromium-sensitive. Hexavalent chromium (potassium dichromate) did however, elicit allergic contact dermatitis in these subjects.

Pharmacokinetics of benzophenone-3 after oral exposure in male rats.

Benzophenone-3 (BZ-3) is one of the UV-absorbing agents that has been used in industry and medicine for more than 30 years. Millions of consumers are exposed to benzophenones on a daily basis owing to the widespread use of these compounds in many of the products on the market, such as lipsticks, hair sprays, hair dyes, shampoo and detergent bars and sunscreen lotions. This study was performed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of BZ-3 after oral administration at 100 mg kg-1 body weight in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Absorption from the gastrointestinal tract was rapid because BZ-3 was detected in blood 5 min after administration. The peak plasma concentration (Cmax) was 25.6 +/- 4.6 micrograms ml-1 and the time of occurrence (tmax) was 3.0 +/- 0.4 h. The half-life of absorption of BZ-3 was 0.71 h. The elimination pattern was biphasic with alpha and beta half-lives of elimination of 0.88 and 15.90 h, respectively. The results of this study indicate the presence of strong binding between the plasma protein and BZ-3. Tissue distribution studies at 6 h indicate that the liver contained the highest concentration of free (58.9 +/- 23.8 micrograms) and total (free+bound or conjugated) BZ-3 (2087 +/- 60.1 micrograms), followed by kidney and testes, respectively. Urine and feces analysis indicate that urine was the major route of excretion, followed by feces. Further analysis of urine samples also indicates that conjugation of BZ-3 with glucuronic acid was the major systemic elimination route for the compound.

Morphological and viscoelastic properties of dense foams generated from skin cleansing bars

Lather from a toilet bar is a dense foam where the volume fraction of the dispersed phase approaches unity. In this study, we present the bubble size distributions and viscoelasticities of lathers from a soap and a synthetic detergent bar. Using measured values of the dynamic tensions of the bar liquors, the experimental viscoelastic results were compared with the predictions from available theoretical models. Significant differences were observed between the physical properties of lathers from a soap and a synthetic detergent bar.

Skin irritancy classification of body cleansing products: Comparison of two test methodologies.

Mildness of skin cleansing products is often claimed although difficult to substantiate. Both the society and the producer share a common interest that cleansing products are safe in use and that valid methods are used for premarketing evaluation of new products. The object of the present study was to evaluate methodological aspects when three products were compared using two different test systems to characterize their irritant properties. A modified soap chamber test (M-SCT) and an iterative short-term patch test (IPT) were performed. Eight healthy female volunteers aged 18 to 55 selected as having responsive skin were studied. Colorimetry and measurement of transepider-mal water loss was employed. A soap, a synthetic detergent bar and a facial cleanser were studied with deionized water as a reference. The IPT appeared more sensitive than the M-SCT for the detection and discrimination of irritation. The techniques allowed the ranking of the irritant properties of the products relative to water, which showed low values in both systems. Ranking of irritant properties of cleansing products was possible even in a limited number of individuals. Iterative short-term patch test was more sensitive than a modified soap chamber test.

Self-perceived sensory responses to soap and synthetic detergent bars correlate with clinical signs of irritation

Background: Epidemiologic studies indicate that after using soaps and other personal care products, many consumers experience irritation. In 50% of the cases the feelings of skin dryness, itching, and stinging occur in the absence of visible signs of irritation. Objective: We sought to determine the relation between self-perceived sensory responses of panelists to cleansing products and clinical signs of irritation. Methods: A combination of exaggerated arm-washing methods was designed to induce clinical signs of irritation with psychometric techniques developed to quantify sensations. Results: Two studies demonstrated that panelists could reproducibly differentiate between products on the basis of the sensations they felt and that there was a significant correlation (frequently r > 0.80) between these and the observable signs. In the case of skin dryness panelists differentiated products several washing cycles before observable differences were detected. Conclusion: Sensory evaluations of irritation yield additional information on soap and detergent irritancy beyond clinical observations and expand understanding of the irritation process.

Evaluation of Mild Skin Cleansers

Each person makes the decision of how best to care for his or her own skin. Among the prime concerns, especially for facial skin, is the type of dirt, debris, or make-up to be removed. In most cases, all products do an adequate job in the removal of dirt; if not, the washing techniques can be modified to accomplish the task at hand. What cannot be controlled are the adverse side effects inherent in the use of that product. These adverse properties include damages to the barrier function of the skin; increased susceptibility to environmental sources of irritation and sensitization; frank irritation responses, such as erythema and edema; and reduction of the cosmetic qualities of the skin, such as degree of moisture and smoothness. Part of the problem is that most of these changes are subtle, occurring slowly over time. Often, the association of these problems with the use of a particular facial cleansing regimen is overlooked. The typical woman uses as many as 10 to 15 facial cosmetic and cleansing products each day, making the identification of a problem even more difficult. It is important to identify the risks associated with individual products and with product categories in general. Although the identification of a safe group of products to use for facial cleansing is desirable, the results of this investigation indicate that there are no simple answers. It has been assumed that because moisturizing cream formulations are routinely safe and mild in general use, a cleansing product in the same general form would share these attributes. We can see from the results in Table 2 and Figures 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 that cleansing creams are not uniformly superior to cleansing bars in the key attributes that are used to evaluate mildness. In each evaluation there were individual cleansing creams that demonstrated statistically weaker performance than did cleansing bars in general. As a group, cleansing creams did well in the cosmetic categories of dryness and texture but surprisingly poorly in such indicators of clinical safety as erythema and TEWL. Further evaluation of the components of the facial-washing regimens proposed by the manufacturers of many of the cleansing-cream products involved the direct comparison of a cleansing cream against that same product used with an alcohol-based toning product. In all cases, the addition of alcohol-based products to the cleaning protocol reduced the cosmetic and clinical safety of the regimen (see Table 2 and Figures 3, 5, 7, and 9).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Detergents, bath preparations, and other skin cleansers

Moderate xerotic eczema, characterized by stratum corneum desquamation, erythema, and pruritis is a common condition that can be induced or worsened by skin cleansing. Traditional dermatologic therapy includes the use of emollients, medium or high potency topical corticosteroids, and a change in bathing habits.To investigate the effect of two cleansing systems: a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a cotton washcloth and a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff as part of a topical treatment approach to moderate xerotic eczema.Sixty patients with moderate xerotic eczema were enrolled in a 4-week investigator-blinded study. Half were randomly treated with a strong topical corticosteroid cream (0.05% fluocinonide) and a traditional cleansing system consisting of a synthetic detergent bar soap applied with a washcloth. The remaining patients were treated with a weaker, medium strength topical corticosteroid cream (0.1% triamcinolone acetonide) and a novel cleansing system consisting of a petrolatum-delivering body wash applied with a polyethylene puff. Dermatologist investigator evaluations and patient self-assessments were conducted at baseline, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks.Patients using the novel petrolatum-delivering body wash and polyethylene puff cleansing system and the lower potency corticosteroid cream demonstrated significantly greater clinical improvement than those patients using the traditional cleansing system of a synthetic detergent beauty bar and washcloth system and the higher potency corticosteroid cream after both 2 and 4 weeks of treatment.The cleansing system of a petrolatum-delivering body wash delivered by a polyethylene puff may be useful as a cleanser for patients with moderate xerotic eczema.

Surface active N‐acylglutamate: V. Application of N‐acylglutamates to detergent bars

AbstractAn application of sodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamate for detergent bars is described. The acyl radicals of cocoyl, hydrogenated tallowyl, semihydrogenated tallowyl, and lauroyl were used in the glutamates. The powder of sodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamate was mixed with a suitable amount of water and milled; then the mixture was extruded and stamped into a bar. Bars were examined relating composition of acyl radicals of sodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamates and properties of the bars or milling and molding properties. The other characteristics of the detergent bars were examined. It was found that attractive detergent bars can be made by using monosodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamate as a component; that hardness, solubility, and lather characteristics of bars can be controlled by blending various monosodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamates and adding moisture; that adjuvant can be used to improve the milling and stamping properties and characteristics of the monosodium N‐acyl‐l‐glutamate bar; and that the bars are less irritating and leave the skin feeling good.

In Vitro Tests for Measuring Antibacterial Activity of Toilet Soap and Detergent Bars

Two new simple in vitro screening tests are described which have proved valuable in predicting the degerming effectiveness of germicidal toilet bars under regular use conditions. The tests, skin disk substantivity and finger imprint tests, measure the residual antibacterial activity of skin treated with soap solutions followed by a water rinse. Thus, a soap germicide is evaluated on the basis of its capacity to become adsorbed to skin and its ability, at low concentrations, to inhibit the growth of bacteria. In vitro test data are described on 3,4',5-tribromosalicylanilide and other germicides incorporated into soap and detergent bars. Good correlation between the new in vitro test results and regular hand washing results (serial basin wash test) is achieved.

Anaflora—A New Anionic Detergent: Clinical and Laboratory Study of Its Effect on Epidermal Fungi and Bacteria

Preliminary screening surveys have indicated that Anaflora,t a new anionic detergent, possesses promising anti-microbial activity (1). A pilot study was designed, therefore, to investigate the antifungal and antibacterial properties of Anaflora and Anaflora incorporated in either detergent or soap bars. J The subjects in the study were male junior and senior medical students or members of the hospital staff. Volunteers wTere instructed to substitute the Anaflora detergent bar or soap bar for their regular toilet soap and shampoo. In addition, each subject was directed specifically to wash his feet daily. All other antifungal and antibacterial preparations were discontinued. The study covered an eight week period from 9 March, 1959, through 2 May, 1959, with all clinical and laboratory examinations performed initially and at 4 and 8 week intervals.

Status of synthetic detergent bars

'TEMPTS to make synthetic bars are not new and can be dated back alnmst 25 years. [ t was not until World W a r 1[ that the so-called salt water soaps were formulated and used on a commercial basis. At tempts to make a synthetic type of bar soap in a milled form were somewhat later and followed the war. One of the first products of this nature was t rade-named Vel. Since we are confining our at tent ion to milled bars, we may say that the beginning of this phase of development was about 12 years ago. About five or six years later a second product, t rade-named Zest, began to be test-marketed. However only within the last two years or less may it be said that synthetic bars have become established on a national basis and have made an impression on the 250,000-ton-market for toilet soaps. The difficulty in formulat ing such products is evident f rom the lack of competit ion in this field. Many patents have been issued, many suggestions made, but few practical formulae have been produced. One of the earliest difficulties was the fact that overenthusiasm in the use of detergents tended to prevent the bar f rom being free-rinsing. This was a greater drawback than had been anticipated. I t has since been solved. Now what incentives exist for the manufac tu re of a synthetic bar? Such advantages are four-fold: a) a synthetic bar is usable equally well in hard and soft water ; b) it does not form a sticky curd in hard water to produce the so-called bathtub r ing; e) it washes f rom the skin more freely than a soap; and d) the p H may be brought closer to that of a normal skin. Detergent bars may be considered as consisting of a detergent, a binder, and such auxi l iary products as color, perfmne, whitener, and stabilizer. I t is highly desirable for the product to be milled and plodded on equipment similar to that used for a s tandard toilet soap bar. I ts specific gravi ty may be close to that of soap and its plodding temperatures may be in excess of soap but should not exceed about 130 ~ to 140~ because of deleterious effects on color, perfume, stability, etc. Moisture control is general ly very narrow for most formulations, and in some eases a plus or minus one-half per cent may make the difference between a hard rubbery mass and a soft put ty , both equally difficult to mill. There are exceptions to such manufac tu r ing conditions, but when such conditions are al tered greatly, the product generalIy fails into another class not under consideration here (4). There are three approaches to fornmlat ion of such products: a) where soap is the base and a detergent is added; b) where a detergent is the base and a soap is added as the binder; and e) where the bar contains no orthodox soap and the binder is a supplementary

Detergent bars from salts ofa‐sulfonated tallow acids

Summary and ConclusionsExperimental detergent bars were based entirely on selected salts of α‐sulfonated saturated tallow acids. Some compositions appear to merit further investigation for the production of finished detergent bars, and an opportunity exists for the discovery of favorable combinations with soap. General conclusions are these. Attractive detergent bars can be made from the monosodium or monoammonium salt [RCH (SO3M)CO2H] by partial neutralization with an amine or mixture of amines. Representative bars had the following compositions in mole percentage, anhydrous basis: a) 72 monosodium, 20 sodium ammonium, 8 sodium triethanolammonium salts; b) 85 monoammonium, 15 ammonium ethanolammonium salts. Hardness and solubility can be controlled by water content and particularly by choice of the amine and the extent of the partial neutralization. Triethanolamine, isopropanolamine, and triethylamine tend to produce softer and more soluble bars than do ethanolamine or ethylamine. The following compositions were suitable for detergent bars useful in sea water: a) 80 mole percentage of disodium 20 acid triethanolammonium; b) 20 monosodium, 50 sodium ammonium, 30 sodium triethanolammonium.

Error in the sampling of soap and detergent bars for moisture determination

Error in the sampling of soap and detergent bars for moisture determination