Detection Of Gunshot Residue Research Articles

Gunshot residue preservation in seawater

Little is known about the persistence of gunshot residue (GSR) in soft tissue and bones during decomposition in marine environments. For a better understanding, qualitative and quantitative data were obtained on GSR retention on soft tissue and bony gunshot wounds (GSWs). A quantity of 36 fleshed and 36 defleshed bovine ribs were shot at contact range with 0.22 calibre hollow point ammunition using a Stirling 0.22 calibre long rifle. Bone specimens in triplicate were placed in three environments: submerged, intertidal and in supralittoral zone. Sets of triplicates were recovered on day 3, 10, 24 and 38, and analysed with scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDX), and inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The SEM–EDX recorded GSR-indicative particles surrounding the bullet entrance on all bone types (fleshed and defleshed) in all environments throughout the study. GSR-unique particles were only detected on the supralittoral bones. The ICP-MS analysis showed faster GSR loss on submerged than intertidal and supralittoral defleshed specimens. Fleshed specimens showed a faster GSR loss on intertidal than submerged and supralittoral specimens. In conclusion, the GSR disappeared faster from submerged and intertidal than non-submerged specimens. The difference of detection of GSR between analysed specimens (defleshed versus fleshed) disappeared upon defleshing. This study highlights the potential of finding evidence of GSR in a submerged body and the potential of microscopic and analytical methods for examining suspected GSW in highly decomposed bodies in marine habitats.

A new method to reduce false positives due to antimony in detection of gunshot residues

False positives due to the presence of antimony in vehicle seat fabrics are a problem in gunshot residue (GSR) analysis, in particular, when graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) is employed. In this study, we sought to determine the reason for the prevalence of false positive results and to propose a new approach for the analysis of GSR on vehicle seats. GFAAS was used to examine adhesive tape swabs collected from 100 seats of 50 different automobiles. Characterization of seat fabrics was carried out by using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray (SEM/EDX) spectroscopy. The results of FTIR analysis indicated that all seat covers containing antimony were composed of polyester. Experimental results obtained by SEM/EDX analysis revealed that the fabrics in these seat covers contained evenly distributed antimony within the structure of polyester fibers. This study shows that the type of seat fabric should be determined by FTIR spectroscopy before elemental GSR analysis. In this way, most of the false positives caused by polyester fibers in GSR analysis can be prevented.

Use of luminescent gunshot residues markers in forensic context

Chemical evaluation of gunshot residues (GSR) produced by non-toxic lead-free ammunition (NTA) has been a challenge to forensic analyses. Our group developed some luminescent markers specific to the detection of GSR. Here, we evaluated the performance of selected markers in experiments that mimic forensic context and/or routines in which luminescent characteristics would be very useful. We evaluated the influence of markers’ addition on the bullet's speed, the rate of shot failure (i.e., when the cartridge case is not fully ejected and/or a new ammunition is not automatically replaced in the gun chamber) as a function of marker percentage, the possibility of collecting luminescent gunshot residue (LGSR) in unconventional locations (e.g. the shooters’ nostrils), the LGSR lifetime after hand washing, the transfer of LGSR to objects handled by the shooter, and the dispersion of LGSR at the crime scene and on simulated victims. It was observed that high amounts of marker (10wt%) cause high rates of failure on pistols, as well as a substantial decrease in bullet speed. However, the use of 2wt% of marker minimizes these effects and allows LGSR detection, collection and analysis. Moreover, in all conditions tested, markers showed high performance and provided important information for forensic analyses. For instance, the LGSR particles were found on the floor, ranging from 0 to 9.4m away from the shooter, on the door panel and seats after a car shooting experiment, and were found easily on a pig leg used to simulate a victim. When a selective tagging was done, it was possible to obtain positive or negative correlation between the victim and shooter. Additionally LGSR possesses a fairly long lifetime (9h) and good resistance to hand washing (up to 16 washes).

Detection of gunshot residues (GSR) on a self-inflicted gunshot wound

Detection of gunshot residues (GSR) on a self-inflicted gunshot wound

Detection of Gunshot Residue on Dark‐Colored Clothing Prior to Chemical Analysis

Detection of gunshot residue (GSR) is an arduous task for investigators. It is often accomplished with chemical tests, which can reveal elements and ions indicating the presence of GSR, but are likely to cause physical alteration to the pattern. In this study, the Spex Forensics Mini-CrimeScope MCS 400, along with 16 accompanying wavelength filters, was applied to various GSR patterns and target types. Three dark shirt materials, four ammunition calibers, and eight ammunition manufacturers, along with the primer residue of the different manufacturer ammunitions were tested. Results indicate the alternate light source wavelength of 445 nm to be the optimal setting. In addition, target material plays a large role in the preservation of GSR patterns as particles burn. Furthermore, it can be extrapolated that residue, observed from a full round and firing distance of six inches, is mostly composed of unburnt gunpowder residue, not primer residue.

Attenuated Total Reflectance-FT-IR Imaging for Rapid and Automated Detection of Gunshot Residue

An alternative approach for the nondestructive, rapid and selective detection of gunshot residue (GSR) was investigated. A cloth substrate containing GSR particles expelled during a firearm discharge was used as an analog for the clothing of a shooting victim or a suspect discharging a firearm. An established and efficient procedure for GSR collection (tape lifting) was utilized to recover GSR particles from the cloth substrate. Microscopic-attenuated total reflectance (ATR) Fourier transform (FT) infrared (IR) spectroscopic imaging rapidly and automatically scanned large areas of the tape collection substrate and detected varying morphologies (microscopic and macroscopic) and chemical compositions (organic and inorganic) of GSR. The "spectroscopic fingerprint" of each GSR type provided unique virbrational modes, which were not characteristic of the tape collection substrate or the cloth debris which was also recovered. ATR images (maps) targeted the detection of these unique chemical markers over the mapped area. The hues of the ATR images were determined by the intensity of the signal for the chemical marker of each analyte. The spatial resolution of the technique was determined to be 4.7 μm. Therefore, all GSR particles sized 4.7 μm or larger will be resolved and detected on the tape substrate using micro-ATR imaging.

A Comparison Between Digital Radiography, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance in the Detection of Gunshot Residues in Burnt Tissues and Bone

The radiological search for GSR is crucial in burnt material although it has been rarely tested. In this study, thirty-one bovine ribs were shot at near-contact range and burnt to calcination in an oven simulating a real combustion. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) were performed before and after carbonization and compared with former analyses with DR (digital radiography); thus comparing the assistance, the radiological methods can provide in the search for GSR in fresh and burnt bone. DR demonstrated the greatest ability in the detection of metallic residues, CT showed lower abilities, while MR showed a high sensitivity only in soft tissues. Thus, DR can be considered as the most sensitive method in the detection of GSR in charred bones, whereas CT and MR demonstrated much less reliability. Nonetheless, the MR ameliorates the analysis of gunshot wounds in other types of remains with large quantities of soft tissues.

Analysis of organic gunshot residue permeation through a model skin membrane using ion mobility spectrometry

Identification and detection of gunshot residue (GSR) is useful in firearm related events and provides important evidence in trials and related cases. At present, methodologies based on the analysis of inorganic particles found in GSR are not amenable to rapid presumptive testing in the field or laboratory settings. An alternative is to target the organic analytes that are vaporized during the firing event and then re-condense on skin and other surfaces, such as clothing. Previous studies have demonstrated that the persistence of organic compounds, such as diphenylamine (DPA), from hand swabs of shooters as detected using commercial ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) instruments was 3–4 h. These same studies indicated that secondary transfer did not occur, which implied that losses of the organic compounds were attributable to absorption into the skin. The goal of this study was to assess the dermal absorption characteristics of organic gunshot residue (OGSR) using IMS. Two studies were conducted. First, a qualitative IMS method was developed for the in vitro analysis of select OGSR compounds. In vitro studies with medical grade silicone were conducted using Franz diffusion cells (FDCs). The results from this study demonstrated that OGSR was dermally absorbed. Second, a semi-quantitative IMS method was developed for an in vitro study of DPA. The skin permeability of DPA (Kp) was experimentally determined to be 2.6 × 10−2 cm/hr, the steady state flux (Jss) was 13 μg cm−2 hr−1, and the lag time was 8.9 h. The results show excellent correlation with the 3–4 h persistence previously reported.

Electrochemical Detection of Gunshot Residue for Forensic Analysis: A Review

AbstractCurrent demands for detection of Gunshot Residue (GSR) require a reliable and rapid decentralized detection system with high sensitivity and specificity. This article reviews the use of electrochemical devices for GSR detection over the last 35 years and highlights recent advances associated with the demands of GSR field detection such as portability, speed, cost and power. Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) has been widely implemented for the detection of the metallic components of GSR at a variety of working electrodes. Efforts toward the detection of the organic components of GSR have also been reported using cyclic‐ and square‐wave voltammetry. The simultaneous detection of both organic and inorganic GSR constituents has recently been examined to increase the overall information content in a single voltammetric scan. As well as this, exploitation of screen‐printing fabrication allows replacement of conventional electrochemical cells with easy‐to‐use sensor strips Sampling methods for electrochemical GSR analysis are also advancing from acid washes or swabs to simpler abrasive methods which integrate sampling and analysis obviating the need for intermediate processing steps. The latest direction of electrochemical detection of GSR involves chemometric treatment to evaluate data allowing for more objective conclusions and increasing the automation of the system. These advances indicate great promise for investigating firearm‐related crimes, and bring significant changes to the detection of GSR making electroanalysis a powerful tool for decentralized forensic analysis.

Solid-state Forensic Finger sensor for integrated sampling and detection of gunshot residue and explosives: towards ‘Lab-on-a-finger’

Increasing security needs require field-deployable, on-the-spot detection tools for the rapid and reliable identification of gunshot residue (GSR) and nitroaromatic explosive compounds. This manuscript presents a simple, all-solid-state, wearable fingertip sensor for the rapid on-site voltammetric screening of GSR and explosive surface residues. To fabricate the new Forensic Fingers, we screen-print a three-electrode setup onto a nitrile finger cot, and coat another finger cot with an ionogel electrolyte layer. The new integrated sampling/detection methodology relies on 'voltammetry of microparticles' (VMP) and involves an initial mechanical transfer of trace amounts of surface-confined analytes directly onto the fingertip-based electrode contingent. Voltammetric measurements of the sample residues are carried out upon bringing the working electrode (printed on the index finger cot) in direct contact with a second finger cot coated with an ionogel electrolyte (worn on the thumb), thus completing the solid-state electrochemical cell. Sampling and screening are performed in less than four minutes and generate distinct voltammetric fingerprints which are specific to both GSR and explosives. The use of the solid, flexible ionogel electrolyte eliminates any liquid handling which can resolve problems associated with leakage, portability and contamination. A detailed study reveals that the fingertip detection system can rapidly identify residues of GSR and nitroaromatic compounds with high specificity, without compromising its attractive behavior even after undergoing repeated mechanical stress. This new integrated sampling/detection fingertip strategy holds considerable promise as a rapid, effective and low-cost approach for on-site crime scene investigations in various forensic scenarios.

Shooting distance determination by m-XRF—Examples on spectra interpretation and range estimation

The XRF's multiple element detection capability is especially useful for the detection of gunshot residue (GSR) of modern lead-free ammunition. An elemental mapping from milli-X-ray fluorescence analysis (m-XRF) can be used in an analogous way to the chemographic imprint to determine the shooting distance. As it is possible to take the mappings of all relevant elements into account, the shooting range estimation becomes more reliable. A numerical tool is presented to display the data and to help differentiate between shooting distances. From the nature of the samples, i.e. a small amount of GSR deposited on a highly scattering background some problems arise. Examples of some major problems in spectra interpretation are stated and examples are presented. Spectra interpretation cannot be fully automated and some points need to be verified by an experienced user.

MicroCT detection of gunshot residue in fresh and decomposed firearm wounds

Gunshot residue (GSR) evidence may be altered or obscured by after-death events such as putrefaction, autolysis, and/or damage by animals. The present study aimed at evaluating and comparing the amount and differential distribution of GSR utilizing microcomputed tomography (microCT) analysis of fresh and decomposed gunshot wounds. A total of 60 experimental shootings at three different firing distances (5, 15, and 30 cm) were performed on human calves surgically amputated for medical reasons. Thirty specimens (10 for each tested distance) were immediately formalin-fixed, while the other 30 specimens were enclosed in a cowshed for 15 days, before formalin fixation (air temperature ranging from 11°C to 38°C). MicroCT analysis with three-dimensional image reconstruction detected GSR particles in all the investigated entrance wounds. In fresh specimens, GSR was concentrated on the skin surface around the entrance hole and in the epidermis and dermis layers around the cavity, while in decomposed specimens, the high density particles were detected only in the dermis layer. No GSR was detected in exit wounds of both fresh and decomposed specimens regardless of the tested firing distance. Statistical analysis demonstrated that also in decomposed wounds the amount of GSR roughly correlated with the distance from which the gun was fired, exhibiting, however, a higher variability than in fresh samples. The obtained results suggest that microCT analysis can be a valid screening tool for differentiating decomposed entrance and exit gunshot wounds.

Identification of Gunshot Residues in Fabric Targets Using Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Technique and Ternary Graphs*

During criminal investigations involving firearms, the detection of gunshot residues (GSRs) is one of the most important evidences. In the present study, a new method to identify trace evidences of GSRs, deposited around the bullet entrance hole, in different types of fabrics used as targets, is described. The experiments were carried out using a 0.38-inch caliber revolver, and 9-mm and 0.40-inch caliber pistols. Testimonies of 2.25 cm(2) of the fabrics were cut around the bullet entrance and digested with 10% nitric acid. Antimony, barium, and lead were analyzed in the remaining solution using a sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. The concentrations of the elements were detected at levels up to few microgram per square centimeter. The use of ternary graphics allowed us to identify specific patterns of distribution for blank samples and the clear distinction between the revolver and pistols used.

Chemical and Morphological Study of Gunshot Residue Persisting on the Shooter by Means of Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry

Persistence of gunshot residue (GSR) simultaneously collected from hands, face and hair, and clothing of the shooting person was examined. Samples were collected from five shooters in nine time intervals after a single shoot with a Luger 9 mm pistol, in the range of 0-4 h and examined with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. Numbers of particles, frequencies of occurrence of certain compositions of particles, and their sizes in function of the time intervals were inspected. The greatest numbers of particles were observed in samples collected from hands right after shooting, but they decrease quickly with time. In samples collected from the face smaller initial numbers of particles were found, but they lasted at a similar level longer. The estimated half-life times of particles were less than 1 h for samples taken from the hands, over 1 h for clothing and about 2-3 h for the face. In samples collected at longer intervals after shooting, there were particles present of small sizes and irregular shapes. The results demonstrate that including evidence collected from the suspect's face and hair may increase the probability of detection of GSR in cases when the suspect has not been apprehended immediately after the investigated incident.

High Photoluminescent Metal–Organic Frameworks as Optical Markers for the Identification of Gunshot Residues

Gunshot residue (GSR) are solid particles produced when a firearm is discharged, and its detection is important evidence in forensic investigations. Currently, scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) is the standard technique adopted for the analysis and identification of GSR; however, this methodology is inefficient for lead-free ammunition. Herein, we report the inclusion of high photoluminescent metal-organic frameworks in ammunition to allow for the visual detection of GSR. The tests indicated that marked GSR is easily visible in proportions above 5.0 wt %. A total of 1 g of marker suffices to tag 100 0.38 mm bullets or 62 0.40 mm bullets.

Forensic Applications of Sodium Rhodizonate and Hydrochloric Acid: A New Histological Technique for Detection of Gunshot Residues

Demonstration of the presence of lead residues deriving from gunshot in skin and underlying tissues is essential for the correct forensic analysis of numerous legal cases. Optical microscopy remains the fastest, cheapest diagnostic technique, even though its sensitivity and specificity are poor because of the scarce quantity of histological tissue that can be examined and possible environmental lead pollution. To confirm the presence of lead from gunshot residues, we applied to histological sections of human skin a technique proposed by Owens and George in 1991 for macroscopic detection of lead on the clothing of shooting victims, involving a reaction with sodium rhodizonate and subsequent confirmation by color change on application of HCl. Our results demonstrate the technical possibility of using this macroscopic technique even on histological samples and support the need for further studies on a larger series of cases correlated with the type of ammunition and firing distance.

Detection of Gunshot Residue in Blowfly Larvae and Decomposing Porcine Tissue Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS)*

Blowfly larvae and porcine tissue contaminated with gunshot residue (GSR) were collected during summer and winter months, over a 37-day and a 60-day sampling period, respectively. Wound samples were microwave-digested and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for the detection of antimony, barium, and lead. During summer, the 37-day sampling period encompassed all stages of decomposition, except skeletonization. The three elements were detected in larvae only on days 3 and 4 after death but were detected at significant levels in tissue samples throughout the entire sampling period. In winter, no significant decomposition was observed throughout the 60-day sampling. Although temperatures were too low for blowfly activity, the three elements were detected in the tissue samples at relatively constant, significant levels. Hence, GSR determination in tissue was more dependent on decomposition stage rather than time since death.

A rapid method for detection of gunshot residue using microwave plasma torch-mass spectrometry

A microwave plasma torch-mass spectrometer (MPT-MS) method was developed to detect simultaneously three heavy metal components (lead, barium, antimony) of gunshot residues. The MPT technique was demonstrated and the method using MPT as ionization source of mass spectrometer was introduced. As expected, MPT-MS exhibits highly sensitivity and specificity for detection of elements. This study indicates that MPT-MS offers substantial potential for forensic gunshot residue examinations.

Gunshot residues: screening analysis by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is further developed for the detection of gunshot residue (GSR) on the hands of a suspected shooter. To develop the procedure, 114 samples were obtained by pressing a small piece of adhesive tape against the dorsal region of the hands of non-shooters, of shooters just after firing a weapon, and of shooters after washing their hands with soap and water. The tapes were analyzed directly in a time-resolved echelle based LIBS system, assembled in the laboratory, and 20 single laser pulses, spread uniformly on the tape surface, were shown to be enough to ensure the detection of true positives. The spectra obtained by LIBS from the tape present a signature with emission lines that are attributed to barium and lead. After the spectral data was submitted to a pattern recognition method SIMCA (Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy), shooters and non-shooters were corrected classified. The method based on LIBS and SIMCA has been demonstrated to be non-destructive of crime evidence and enabled discrimination between the samples collected from non-shooter volunteers and shooter volunteers before and after washing their hands.

A proposal for statistical evaluation of the detection of gunshot residues on a suspect

The possibility of accidental contamination of a suspect by gunshot residues (GSRs) is considered. If two hypotheses are taken into account ("the suspect has shot a firearm" and "the suspect has not shot a firearm"), the likelihood ratio of the conditional probabilities of finding a number n of GSRs is defined. Choosing two Poisson distributions, the parameter lambda of the first one coincides with the mean number of GSRs that can be found on a firearm shooter, while the parameter mu of the second one is the mean number of GSRs that can be found on a nonshooter. In this scenario, the likelihood ratio of the conditional probabilities of finding a number n of GSRs in the two hypotheses can be easily calculated. The evaluation of the two parameters lambda and mu and of the goodness of the two probability distributions is performed by using different sets of data: "exclusive" lead-antimony-barium GSRs have been detected in two populations of 31 and 28 police officers at diverse fixed times since firearm practice, and in a population of 81 police officers who stated that they had not handled firearms for almost 1 month. The results show that the Poisson distributions well fit the data for both shooters and nonshooters, and that the probability of detection of two or more GSRs is normally greater if the suspect has shot firearms.