Wars and armed conflicts have a negative impact on the cultural heritage of countries where military operations are carried out. Cultural assets are important as a historical value for a given society, a scientific value due to their cognitive value or the preservation of identity and culture, among others. It is cultural identity that influences the sense of belonging to a given society, a given group and the values it adopts. Consequently, we can conclude that through the role of cultural assets in the context of social identity, we can also talk about building social resilience, which is supposed to lead to the capacity for survival, recovery and strong bonds. The article points to international regulations that are not effective enough to stop the destruction of cultural heritage in Ukraine. The aim of this article is to point out examples of the destruction and plundering of cultural property taking place in Ukraine and the actions of both the Ukrainian side and international efforts to preserve it. A very important process is the documentation and cataloguing of cultural property and the possibility of storing movable cultural property outside the area of war or armed conflict. In the years to come, the damage done in Ukraine will require considerable financial and personnel resources to reconstruct. There is also a risk that some cultural property will never be returned to the Ukrainian side.

The intentional destruction of cultural heritage undermines human dignity, identity, and intergenerational continuity and, when committed in armed conflict, constitutes a serious violation of international law. Between 2013 and 2019, the so-called Islamic State (Daesh) conducted a systematic campaign of cultural destruction in Iraq and Syria, targeting monuments, religious sites, museums, and archaeological remains while simultaneously exploiting antiquities trafficking to finance its operations. This article examines how international law responds to such acts when perpetrated by a non-state armed group lacking international legal personality. Drawing on the doctrine of the Common Heritage of Humanity, UNESCO’s prohibition of intentional destruction, and developments in international criminal law, the paper analyses the allocation of responsibility between states and individuals for heritage crimes committed by Daesh. Using a doctrinal and case-law-based methodology, it assesses state obligations to prevent, protect, and repair cultural damage, alongside the emergence of individual criminal responsibility under the Rome Statute and domestic jurisdictions. The article argues that, notwithstanding Daesh’s non-state character, contemporary international law provides a coherent accountability framework that integrates state responsibility, individual criminal liability, and post-conflict restorative measures, reaffirming cultural heritage as a collective interest of humanity and a core component of international legal protection.

The main purpose of the article is to present the mechanisms involved in the removal of traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland, based on a case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. This was made possible thanks to preserved archival documents— a file titled Sprawy zlikwidowanego cmentarza żydowskiego (ul. Krzywa 18). Dotyczą okresu 1958-87 [Matters of the Liquidated Jewish Cemetery (18 Krzywa Street), covering the years 1958–1987] and stored at the Chorzów City Hall. In addition, the article will present little-known facts concerning the history of the cemetery, its urban layout and architecture, as well as largely unpublished iconographic material. The source analysis employs the traditional scholarly method of historical-interpretative research. Documents—mainly archival—and factual information about the site were collected and then subjected to analysis and interpretation. Iconographic sources—plans, designs, and photographs—were examined and confronted with surviving descriptions and the results of empirical research. Thanks to the preserved archival materials, the legal and administrative mechanisms for removing traces of Jewish material heritage in postwar Poland were reconstructed on the basis of this case study—the liquidation of the Jewish cemetery in Chorzów. The article analyzes and cites legal acts and circulars that enabled the expropriation and liquidation of the necropolis, as well as the sale of tombstones and tombstone stone. Based on archival documents, preserved plans, and photographs, the article reconstructs (as far as possible) the appearance of the cemetery and the funeral home prior to their destruction, and then presents the history of their devastation along with photographs taken just before the liquidation.The Jewish cemetery in Chorzów was established around 1864 on Ziegeleistrasse (now Krzywa Street) in Königshütte (now Chorzów). At the end of the 19th century, an impressive funeral house designed by Edmund Trossin (design dated 1898) was erected at the main entrance. Around 1906, the cemetery was expanded to the southwest according to a design by Franz Jaunich. It covered an area of 0.8 hectares and, according to postwar records, contained 1,700 graves with 900 tombstones. In 1959 it was closed, and between 1972 and 1973 it was liquidated. For years it had been systematically destroyed, and only in 2006 was it commemorated by the erection of a monument.

Abstract This article maps how cultural heritage has been securitized in international discourse by analyzing seven key United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and UN Security Council (UNSC) documents (2003–2017). Drawing on the Copenhagen School’s framework and its distinction between identification and mobilization, the study reveals a two-stage process. Initially, heritage destruction was framed as a human rights violation, later escalating into a global security threat linked to terrorism and conflict financing. Through a sectoral and scalar typology of referent objects, the analysis highlights divergent framings by UNESCO (societal, normative) and the UNSC (military, strategic). Despite strong discursive alignment—culminating in UNSC Resolution 2347—the mobilization of extraordinary measures remained limited. The article concludes that heritage securitization is discursively robust but operationally incomplete, shaped by institutional capacities, leadership shifts, and evolving geopolitical contexts. These findings contribute to the broader literature on security politics, norm diffusion, and the symbolic power of heritage in global governance.

Abstract Despite the widespread and creative use of heritage politics by a range of international actors, such as multilateral institutions and states, the field of International Relations (IR) has paid insufficient attention to the topic. To the extent that these politics have entered the field’s attention, it has been primarily through instances of highly publicized cultural heritage destruction during armed conflict. This special issue brings together eight research articles, as well as a framing introduction and a conclusion, with the aim of launching international heritage politics as an important IR research agenda. Moving beyond destruction to the productive politics of heritage, these contributions show the range of these politics from the construction of international cultural status to forging contemporary international alliances along themes of cultural and historical familiarity. Further, they show heritage politics at work in international institutions, from UNESCO to the ICC, in bilateral and multilateral relations, and as moving between international and domestic politics. In these broad deployments, heritage politics are attached to museum collections, travelling exhibits, archaeological digs, DNA tests, restitution demands, and debates on international land swaps.

The destruction of architectural heritage in war conflicts is devastating for the entire civilization and this is precisely the reason for a large number of discussions even today in the 21st century. A society affected by the war destruction identifies itself with a destroyed heritage. Rehabilitation seeks to restore heritage and compensate for losses by giving importance to the process of creating and implementing renewal projects. In these processes, community involvement is of great importance. During wartime events, heritage and society suffer the most. The aim of the work is to present the post-war rehabilitation project as a complex process that includes not only the treated heritage building but also the community to which it belongs, taking into account physical and equally important metaphysical values. Traditional craft skills and historic building materials can restore lost physical structures. The primary concept of rehabilitation is expanding due to the changes caused by different degrees of violent degradation and but also due to inadequate interventions which, in most cases, were unintentionally committed in order to normalize life after the war as quickly as possible. Arguments for the rehabilitation of architectural heritage must also be found in the local community. The places where the heritage complexes were located are of great importance to the community and most of the time, even though there is nothing left, they are still perceived as a space and a place of great importance. Community participation in the rehabilitation process is also a process of reconciliation within the community. The degradation of metaphysical values leaves far greater consequences for the community than the degradation of physical characteristics due to which community loses the sense of belonging, the sense of security, but also its identity. Ultimately, we can say that the rehabilitation of the metaphysical aspect of architectural heritage is a far more complex and uncertain process than any other. With a well-established methodology for the restoration and protection of architectural heritage, we know in advance the results that will follow when it comes to the physical structure. The return of metaphysical values is uncertain, even after the end of the rehabilitation project. Reactions to the object, interaction with it and its understanding by the community take a lot longer, and more serious analyses and final results require the passage of time. The relationship between metaphysical and physical renewal is inherent, and their connection is cause-and-effect, and metaphysical experience arises through the interaction of the body and mind with the objects of architectural heritage.

Alberta Fabbricotti (ed.), Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage and the Law: A Research Companion, Routledge, London–New York: 2024, pp. xxv + 451

The protection of heritage is a security issue recognised by United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 2347. The resolution acknowledges the importance of cultural property for peace and security, and underlines the central role of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in international efforts to protect heritage during armed conflicts. Rooted in the UN’s broader commitment to shield populations from genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing, the safeguarding of cultural property has also become relevant in the context of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P). This article analyses UNESCO’s and the Security Council’s argumentation surrounding the adoption of Resolution 2347 in 2017, examining how the shared commitment to protect heritage against atrocities reflects aspirations to protect vulnerable populations under R2P and problematises the standard division of labour within the United Nations system. The article concludes that while the agendas of R2P and heritage protection appear compatible and mutually supportive, in practice they are both defined and constrained by the challenge posed by state sovereignty. Moreover, despite the unanimous acknowledgment of heritage protection as a humanitarian and security imperative, it remains unclear whether the resolution perceives the threat to international peace and security as stemming primarily from the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage, or from terrorist activity financed through the plundering of such property. This ambiguity highlights the internal division between the two UN actors: the first reading echoes the heritage governance rhetoric characteristic of UNESCO, while the latter frames counterterrorism as part of the global heritage protection agenda, thereby legitimising the Security Council’s involvement.

Abstract The paper investigates how discrepancies in trade data can signal illicit flows of cultural goods. Focusing on Italy, a country highly endowed with cultural heritage and exposed to the risk of illicit trafficking countered by a specialized law enforcement unit, the presence of a consistent gap between the value of cultural goods exported from the country and the value reported by its trading partners over three decades is documented and analyzed. The paper offers two main contributions. First, we estimate a gravity model of trade gaps in four separate categories of cultural goods, each subject to varying degrees of legal protection and vulnerability to illicit trade, incorporating a novel indicator of cultural salience and corruption indicators. Second, we evaluate international policies aimed at curbing illicit trade in cultural goods in terms of their ability to reduce trade gaps. Our findings provide empirical evidence on the relationship between trade gaps and illicit markets for cultural objects, and confirm the role of interest in Italian heritage as a driving factor. Archaeological property is further analyzed separately before and after 2010 to show that the apparent increase of Italian trade may partly result from the Arab Springs’ consequences on destruction and looting of cultural heritage. Institutional enforcement through the UNESCO and UNIDROIT conventions is partially effective in reducing illicit trade.

The beginning of spring 2025 brought South Korea its worst wildfires which caused extensive environmental damage and fatal human losses and permanent destruction of cultural heritage. The wildfires demonstrated South Korea's rising exposure to climate change-driven disasters in an unprecedented way. South Korea needs to develop urgent wildfire prevention and detection and management strategies because climate change continues to accelerate at a dangerous rate. The research examines the factors that increase wildfire occurrence and intensity through rising temperatures and extended droughts and poor land management practices. The paper assesses innovative technological solutions which show promising outcomes for wildfire management. The research explores experimental drone technology and artificial intelligence systems which improve wildfire detection speed and precision while enhancing suppression effectiveness. The analysis examines recent studies and real-world implementation cases to demonstrate both the advantages and constraints of these innovative solutions. The research shows that technological progress by itself does not solve wildfire risks effectively. Innovation needs to form part of an integrated system which combines climate-smart forestry with ecological restoration and sustainable land-use planning. The study determines which strategies work best for South Korea while stressing the requirement for an urgent coordinated framework that unites advanced technologies with climate-responsive forestry practices. An integrated system enhances disaster readiness and response capabilities and builds long-term resistance against increasing wildfire threats.

Coastal erosion poses an acute threat to cultural heritage resources, particularly in island contexts where erosional and degradational threats can be amplified by increased exposure and sea-level changes. We present a generalizable, best-practice approach that integrates multi-temporal, multi-resolution, and inconsistently ground-controlled data to demonstrate how suites of remotely sensed data can be integrated under real-world constraints. This approach is used to conduct a longitudinal analysis of cultural resources on the island of Inishark, Western Ireland. Results show evidence of significant and potentially accelerating shoreline erosion and structural loss within the past century, with rates of erosion ranging from 0.15 to 0.3 m/year along shorelines and 3–5 m2/year for structures. Outcomes demonstrate the utility and importance of an integrative data approach for cultural resource management.

ABSTRACT Turkey’s transformation from a multi-religious and multi-ethnic empire into a nation-state has caused the dismissal, transformation, replacement, denial and destruction of several unrecognised material and immaterial heritage. The livelihoods and diverse artisanship once ingrained into nature and its medians have been shattered after decades of war, generations killed in violence and later with the destructive effects of neoliberalism. Built on the understanding that heritage is beyond the cultural and the human, this paper connects a series of ethnographic data collected in a historically Jewish and Greek neighbourhood of Istanbul, Balat and Fener, to understand the interplay between the heritage as an imagined realm and the physical relationship to the inherited. Specifically, it focuses on how the new inhabitants have been developing rapport and making sense of this historic area and its native flora (ie fig trees) through fetih (conquest). The paper reads fetih as an imaginative heritage-making attempt and a reference point used in the processes of heritage removal and ecological destruction perpetrated by the area’s inhabitants of 1950s onwards. By studying the interplay between cultural and ecological heritage as co-created realms, it questions the limits of the very idea of heritage as a social concept.

This article examines the extent of destruction of rural cultural landscapes and vernacular architecture in the Žepa region of eastern Bosnia during the 1992–1995 attacks by Bosnian Serb Forces, led by Generals Ratko Mladi? and Zdravko Tolimir, both later sentenced for genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). These attacks culminated in the capture and devastation of the UN-designated safe enclave in late July 1995. Building on existing legal and scholarly findings that identified the systematic and deliberate nature of such destruction, this study enhances those conclusions through localized and quantified evidence. Using field surveys conducted between 2022 and 2024, combined with satellite imagery, the study applies a Destruction Index (DI) to measure the extent of physical devastation across 1,840 structures in 23 rural settlements. The findings showed that a destruction index of 0.98 reflects deliberate and systematic destruction consistent with the objectives of cultural genocide and the typical tactical approach of Ratko Mladi?’s forces. These findings confirm the scale and uniformity of targeted erasure across the region. By correlating patterns of destruction with spatial positioning the study reinforces International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) jurisprudence that classified such acts as part of a coordinated campaign of persecution and ethnic cleansing. It further contributes to academic debates on cultural genocide by offering concrete, quantified data that localize the broader strategy of territorial and cultural elimination in eastern Bosnia.

The paper describes and analyzes the principal forms, methods, and results of Ukrainian-Polish cooperation in the sphere of heritage protection after February 24, 2022. The main focus is on the Kharkiv region, because it has suffered the greatest destruction of cultural and historical heritage as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian War. The key body of sources for the study is a group of eight interviews with members of the management and staff of such structural units of universities and local self-government as provided organizational support and coordination for joined efforts between Ukrainian and Polish specialists during the war, as well as heads of archives, museums, and libraries that cooperated with Polish partners in saving heritage sites. The interviews were recorded from September to November 2024 and are deposited for permanent storage at the Central State Archive of Science and Technology (TsDNTA) of Ukraine. The article outlines the process of establishing communication between heritage conservationists in Ukraine and Poland after the start of the full-scale Russian invasion, analyzes the hierarchy of the institutions involved, and characterizes the main forms of support provided by Polish heritage conservationists to their Ukrainian colleagues (humanitarian assistance in the form of equipment and materials necessary to secure collections and ensure the autonomous operation of institutions in the conditions of unstable power supply; provision of equipment and advisory support for digitizing collections; help with publishing activity; organization of joint conferences, seminars, and internships; advisory assistance in the implementation of international projects; joint exhibitions). The author describes what tactical and strategic tasks have been accomplished thanks to this support and considers the question of what shared Ukrainian-Polish platforms of specialized interaction may emerge or receive further development as a result of this cooperation.

The Russo-Ukrainian War has led to the greatest destruction and damage to Ukraine’s cultural heritage since World War II. The war became a trigger for a rethinking of the meaning of cultural heritage in Ukrainian society, and caused a “turn” in attitudes towards culture more generally. Recognizing the complexity and importance of these developments, in May 2022 a group of researchers at V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University launched the academic project “City and War”. One of the project’s objectives was to capture the views of cultural experts on the ongoing processes of destruction, preservation, and reinterpretation of cultural heritage in Ukraine driven by the Russian military aggression. To accomplish this task, the project team is collecting in-depth interviews with representatives of the Ukrainian expert community. The paper analyzes experts’ reflections on several key issues: 1) systemic problems in cultural heritage protection in Ukraine; 2) challenges faced by the field during the Russo-Ukrainian War, in particular since the full-scale Russian invasion on February 24, 2022; 3) strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage in wartime; 4) the use of digital technologies in cultural heritage protection during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The article concludes that the interviews collected for the project offer testimony important for understanding the pre-war specifics of the field and the current state and future prospects of cultural heritage preservation and reinterpretation in Ukraine. At the same time, it is noted that cultural experts should be more proactive in broadcasting their vision of the pressing problems of cultural heritage protection, and should strive to make their views more accessible to the general public. It is important that experts effectively interact with other social actors and that they not only react to public demand, but also take on a more assertive role in the public discussion around heritage and, to a certain extent, guide the public opinion.

This study examines the legal submission made by Turkey regarding its intervention in the judicial proceedings initiated by South Africa against Israel. The study considers Turkey's legal reasoning in comparison with the approaches adopted by other intervening states. It identifies common legal approaches among intervening states, including their emphasis on the jus cogens status of the prohibition of genocide, the erga omnes partes nature of obligations to prevent genocide, and the possibility of establishing genocidal intent through indirect evidence. Turkey's intervention makes distinctive contributions in three areas: its interpretation of responsibilities arising from occupying power status; its argument that systematic destruction of health systems constitutes genocide; and its analysis of the relationship between apartheid and genocide. The study also identifies aspects that could have strengthened Turkey's application, including a more comprehensive challenge to Israel's self-defense argument, greater emphasis on cultural heritage destruction as evidence of genocidal intent, deeper analysis of the prevention obligation's scope, and more thorough examination of humanitarian aid obstruction. The research concludes that Article 63 interventions serve as important mechanisms for developing and clarifying international norms. The ICJ's assessment of these interventions will potentially contribute significantly to the evolution of international law regarding erga omnes partes obligations, determination of genocidal intent, and the scope of genocide prevention obligations. Future research should include detailed analysis of the ICJ's assessments of intervention applications in this case and examination of their effects on the development of international law, particularly concerning the relationship between genocide and other international crimes, and the scope of prevention obligations for occupying powers.

The low level of public understanding about historical and architectural values of historical areas in both urban and rural areas often leads to neglect or even destruction of cultural heritage. This community service activity aims to increase public awareness of the importance of architectural and urban conservation through a service learning approach in the form of advocacy based on popular scientific writing in online media. To this end, the implementing team compiled and published four popular scientific articles that discuss conservation issues in communicative language and are tailored to the characteristics of general readers. The implementation method consists of three main stages: preparation (collection of materials, writing training), preparation and correction of articles, and publication and dissemination through various digital media. The results of the activity show that this strategy is able to reach a wider audience, encourage public discussion, and raise new awareness of the importance of preserving urban architecture. This activity also succeeded in positioning academic knowledge as an integral part of the media-based social advocacy movement. In the future, a similar approach is recommended to be expanded in scale with policy support and cross-sector collaboration.

The purpose of the article is to consider the state of librarianship in Croatia during the Croatian War (1991-1995) and to study the experience of post-war restoration. The methodological basis of the study is the general scientific principles of integrity, objectivity, complexity, continuity and comprehensiveness of knowledge. From the standpoint of scientific methodology, the problem is considered on the basis of a systemic, interdisciplinary and historical approaches. The achievement of the set goal was carried out using a system of general scientific and special methods: theoretical (analysis, synthesis, abstraction, explanation, generalization, etc.), empirical (description, comparison, observation), historical-comparative, problem-chronological, identification and analysis of sources, and others. Finding. In Ukrainian library science, the losses and destruction, the functioning of libraries, the work of librarians and the state of librarianship in Croatia during the Croatian War of 1991-1995 and the experience of post-war restoration are studied for the first time. Practical value. Studying foreign experience and strategies for post-war library restoration is of great importance for Ukraine. The successes and failures of complex strategies and individual projects for library restoration in Croatia require careful study. This will allow avoiding mistakes in our own activities for the post-war restoration of society in general and library work in particular. Results. The Croatian War caused significant human casualties and material destruction. The consequences of this war still affect the culture and politics of the country. The attacks on libraries that occurred during the Croatian War were both incidental and intentional, conscious war crimes against culture. The fact that libraries were targeted is a clear indication of their importance to society. The library sector in Croatia suffered serious losses. During the war, more than 200 libraries were destroyed or damaged throughout the country: school, public, academic, scientific, memorial, private. Libraries in Eastern, Central and Southern Croatia suffered the most. The aggression was most brutal in Slavonia, in the northeast of the country, and Dalmatia, in the southeast. Library collections were significantly devastated; many buildings were destroyed or damaged. The problem of preserving the library resources that were saved in proper conditions became urgent. Practice has confirmed the necessity of documenting losses and preventive measures to preserve intellectual and cultural heritage. Despite difficult and dangerous conditions, Croatian libraries provided services to users throughout the war and became an important and valuable public resource and place of resistance. Even during the war, a number of projects and initiatives were launched to restore library collections and buildings lost or damaged during the war. The second half of the 1990s was marked by a rethinking of the place and role of Croatian libraries in society in the context of reconstruction. International support was significant. International organizations, foundations, foreign libraries and colleagues provided significant assistance in restoring Croatian libraries. Croatia’s experience has shown that in addition to financial and material assistance, the world community must respond in an organized, effective and fair manner to crimes against humanity and culture and violations of international conventions, such as the destruction of libraries. The attacks on libraries during the Croatian War occurred despite the fact that the buildings were marked with the international monument protection emblem. Although the aftermath of the Yugoslav wars prompted the international community to urgently reassess how cultural property could be protected during conflict, and led to more specific recognition by international humanitarian law that the destruction of a human cultural heritage constitutes an aspect of genocide, there remains a need to develop mechanisms and procedures that would facilitate the practical application of international instruments to adequately respond to the destruction of cultural property, in particular libraries.

On the issue of cultural heritage protection, there has been little systematic research on the subject in the past. At the same time, the importance of cultural heritage protection is self-evident. Therefore, from a political science point of view, why are some cultural heritages protected in wars while others are destroyed? In response to this question, this paper attempts to explain the factors affecting the protection and destruction of cultural heritage in war, and argues for the protection of cultural heritage in four different paths, including three factors, using specific battles in the Second World War as examples. The factors influencing the protection of cultural heritage are categorised into a military and a political level, where the military level, which is prioritised, is where the subjective estimation of the power contrasts and whether cultural heritage is used for military purposes directly affects the protection of cultural heritage, and the political level where political considerations at home and abroad are the influencing factors. Only when these factors work together and favour protection, cultural heritage can be protected from destruction.

This study investigates regional variations in media framings of ISIS on X, identifying the key factors contributing to these differences. By analysing diverse perspectives and approaches adopted by media accounts, the research sheds light on how various factors shape media discourse on social media platforms. Data were collected from X using RStudio and the academictwitteR package. Network analysis was employed to identify key opinion leaders (KOLs) within each regional group, while framing analysis explored media variations through framing devices such as problem definition and causal interpretation. Findings reveal that Asian media primarily focus on local impacts, particularly the radicalization of Indonesian citizens by ISIS and egregious human rights abuses. Euro-Anglosphere media emphasize international involvement, highlighting violent acts and advocating for a coordinated global response. Middle Eastern media centre their framing on local events, including military engagements, cultural heritage destruction, and immediate regional consequences. These variations are influenced by factors such as geopolitical proximity, national context, domestic journalistic norms, and online netizen engagement patterns. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the dynamics of media discourse on X concerning ISIS.