Delivery Of Safe Drinking Water Research Articles

Mitigating aging infrastructure risks: An optimized epoxy resin system for water supply pipeline rehabilitation

Urban water supply networks are crucial for ensuring the delivery of safe drinking water to urban populations; however, the aging infrastructure in these systems has led to a rising incidence of leaks and frequent pipeline failures, posing serious risks. Traditional repair approaches encounter limitations in terms of efficiency, durability, and environmental safety, particularly when employed in potable water pipelines. To address these challenges, we developed a novel multi-component amine-cured epoxy resin system specifically optimized for in-situ curing under ambient conditions. This study comprehensively examines the mechanical properties, water absorption behavior, and curing kinetics of this resin system, formulated to reduce volatile organic compound emissions while enhancing durability under prolonged water exposure. Experimental findings demonstrate that the E2 formulation exhibited superior tensile strength, flexural properties, and fracture toughness relative to other formulations, with a two-stage water absorption model accurately predicting resin behavior in moisture-laden environments. Moreover, finite element modeling and laboratory testing confirmed the influence of bubble defects on mechanical performance, and a negative pressure defoaming technique effectively reduced defect volume, resulting in a 17.6% improvement in tensile strength. Collectively, this research advances the practical application of rapid-curing resins, offering a resilient, safe, and sustainable solution for the rehabilitation of aging water pipeline networks.

Land-Use Pattern-Based Spatial Variation of Physicochemical Parameters and Efficacy of Safe Drinking Water Supply along the Mahaweli River, Sri Lanka

Exploration of the pollution status of river-based water sources is important to ensure quality and safe drinking water supply for the public. The present study investigated physicochemical parameters of surface water in the upper segment of River Mahaweli, which provides drinking water to the Nuwara Eliya and Kandy districts of Sri Lanka. River surface water from 15 intakes and treated water from 14 Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) were tested for pH, water temperature, turbidity, EC, COD, 6 anions, 21 cations, 3 pesticides, and 30 antibiotics once every 3 months from June 2022 to July 2023. Except for turbidity and iron concentrations, all other parameters were within the permissible range as per the Sri Lanka Standard Specification for Potable Water (SLS 614:2013). The uppermost Kotagala WTP raw water had a high concentration of iron due to runoff from areas with abundant iron-bearing minerals. Turbidity increased as the river flowed downstream, reaching its highest value of 13.43 NTU at the lowermost Haragama. Four intakes had raw surface water suitable for drinking as per the Water Quality Index (WQI). Pollution increased gradually towards downstream mainly due to agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and urbanization. Poor water quality at the upstream Thalawakale-Nanuoya intake was due to highly contaminated effluent water coming from Lake Gregory in Nuwara Eliya. Cluster analysis categorized WTP locations in the river segment into 3 clusters as low, moderate, and high based on contaminations. Principal component analysis revealed that the significance of the 41.56% variance of the raw water was due to the pH and the presence of heavy metals V, Cr, Ni, Rb, Co, Sr, and As. All treated water from 15 WTPs had very good to excellent quality. In general, heavy metal contamination was low as indicated by the heavy metal pollution index (HPI) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI). The treatment process could remove up to 94.7% of the turbidity. This is the first attempt to cluster the river catchment of the Mahaweli River based on physicochemical parameters of river water. We present here the land-use pattern-based pollution of the river and efficacy of the water treatment process using the Mahaweli River Basin as a case study. Regular monitoring and treatment adjustments at identified points are recommended to maintain the delivery of safe drinking water.

Estimating the risk of gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking tap water in Norway: a prospective cohort study

BackgroundThe delivery of safe drinking water has high public health relevance, as reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG6). Several precautionary actions have reduced the burden associated with infectious diseases in high-income countries; however, pollution in source waters, inadequate disinfection, and premise plumbing, along with an increased awareness that intrusion in the drinking water distribution system, represents risk factors for gastrointestinal illness linked to consume of drinking water. Sporadic cases of waterborne infections are expected to be underreported since a sick person is less likely to seek healthcare for a self-limiting gastrointestinal infection. Hence, knowledge on the true burden of waterborne diseases is scarce. The primary aim with the present study was to estimate the risk of gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking tap water in Norway.MethodsWe conducted a 12-month prospective cohort study where participants were recruited by telephone interview after invitation based on randomised selection. A start up e-survey were followed by 12 monthly SMS questionnaires to gather information on participants characteristics and drinking tap water (number of 0.2L glasses per day), incidence, duration and symptoms associated with gastrointestinal illness. Associations between the exposure of drinking tap water and the outcome of risk of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) were analysed with linear mixed effects models. Age, sex, education level and size of the drinking water supply were identified as potential confounders and included in the adjusted model.ResultsIn total, 9,946 persons participated in this cohort study, accounting for 11.5% of all invited participants. According to the data per person and month (99,446 monthly submissions), AGI was reported for 5,508 person-months (5.5 per 100 person-months). Severe AGI was reported in 819 person-months (0.8 per 100 person-months). Our study estimates that 2–4% of AGI in Norway is attributable to drinking tap water.ConclusionsThis is the largest cohort study in Norway estimating the burden of self-reported gastrointestinal infections linked to the amount of tap water drunk in Norway. The data indicate that waterborne AGI is not currently a burden in Norway, but the findings need to be used with caution. The importance of continued efforts and investments in the maintenance of drinking water supplies in Norway to address the low burden of sporadic waterborne cases and to prevent future outbreaks needs to be emphasised.

Beneath the Surface: Uncovering Heavy Metal Contamination in Public Drinking Well Water and the Public Health Implications in Kaduna South LGA, Nigeria

Unsafe drinking water has emerged as a critical global public and environmental health concern, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Evidence indicates that unsafe water sources are responsible for approximately 1.2 million deaths annually, most of which are the result of heavy metal (HM) contamination, which poses a severe threat to public health. This study explored selected HM contamination and the likely non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks to the consumers of public drinking well water sources in Kaduna South LGA, Nigeria. Atomic absorption Spectroscopy was adopted for HM analysis, and potential health risks were evaluated using the established Human Health Risk Exposure Assessment Indices. The findings indicated an unsafe quantity of HMs, with the mean concentration above the recommended limit prescribed by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (2007) and the World Health Organization (2011) for most HMs in the order; Zn (33.523) > Mn (2.805) > Pb (0.793) > Cr (0.05), as well as a substantial non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risk for adults and children with the Hazard Index and Cancer Risk values above the recommended standards. The findings will prove useful to public health authorities in developing evidence-based monitoring and active interventions tot facilitate the delivery of safe drinking water to the local population.

Development of a tool to support operationalising water safety plans: experiences from a national water utility in Ghana.

Since their incorporation into the 2004 version of the World Health Organization's (WHO's) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (GDWQ), Water Safety Plans (WSPs) continue to be the pre-eminent process for the delivery of safe drinking water to consumers. WSPs achieve this by prioritising proactive, rather than reactive, management of risks to drinking water quality. Since the use of WSPs was incorporated into the GDWQ, a range of supporting resources have been produced to assist water suppliers in preparing WSPs. Producing a robust WSP is an important first step in the management of risk, but in many cases, the implementation of WSPs presents significant challenges, particularly in relation to the implementation of Module 5 (implementing improvements) and Module 6 (monitoring of control measures). To address barriers to WSP implementation, the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), in a peer-to-peer partnership with two Australian water utilities, developed a pilot WSP implementation strategy for one of the company's drinking water supply systems. One of the outputs of the collaboration was the development of a framework for operationalising water safety planning, which incorporates basic guidance for embedding the WSP within routine operations, in order to ensure the safe management of drinking water.

Estimation of Access to Safe Drinking Water to Households in Etawah District: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Unsafe drinking water causes diarrheal disease and environmental enteropathy. The quality of water is determined by its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Water sourceshave a significant impact on household members' health, particularly children. To combat this, India is committed to providing household tap connections to ensure the delivery of safe drinking water with the "Jal Jeevan Mission." This study aims to estimate the access to safe drinking waterand the physicaland chemical qualities of water (qualitatively) in the urban and rural areas of Etawah district, India. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Etawah district from January 2020 to December 2021. Thestudy subjects were the eldest female of the family. A total of 312 females were included. The data collected were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 25 (released 2017; IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, United States) for descriptive analysis. In the present study, 76.3% (238/312) of households in the urban and rural areas had access to safe drinking water (here, the meaning of the word "safe" is based on its operational definition). A total of 130 (83.3%) householdsin rural areas and only 21 (13.5%) in urban areas had private supply as the primary water source. The physical and chemical qualities of water were within the requirement (acceptable limit) and permissible limit in all the study areas, so the water is considered safe for drinking. This study reported that 76.3% (238) households had access to safe drinking water according to the operational definition. The major public source of drinking water waspublic-supplied tap water, and in private sources, submersible or boreholes were the most common.

A Big Data framework for actionable information to manage drinking water quality

Abstract Water utilities collect vast amounts of data, but they are stored and utilised in silos. Machine learning (ML) techniques offer the potential to gain deeper insight from such data. We set out a Big Data framework that for the first time enables a structured approach to systematically progress through data storage, integration, analysis, and visualisation, with applications shown for drinking water quality. A novel process for the selection of the appropriate ML method, driven by the insight required and the available data, is presented. Case studies for a water utility supplying 5.5 million people validate the framework and provide examples of its use to derive actionable information from data to help ensure the delivery of safe drinking water.

Effect of Sodium Hypochlorite on Biofilm-Producing Organisms Isolated from A Hospital Drinking Water

Objectives: Providing safe drinking water is essential for maintaining healthcare quality. The presence of biofilms in the water supply protects the organism from the antimicrobial effects of disinfectants leading to the formation of the MDR pathogen pool. Therefore, this study was taken up to determine the prevalence of biofilm formation in the bacteria isolated from the water system of a tertiary health care setup and study the effect of disinfectants on biofilms.
 Methods: Thirty-four drinking water samples were collected in sterile glass stopper bottles and transported to the lab. Standard bacteriological procedures identified isolates. Biofilm detection was carried out by the tissue culture plate (TCP) method. The effect of disinfectant (sodium hypochlorite) at various concentrations (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 %) on biofilm-producing organism were studied for 30 minutes and analyzed.
 Results: The culture positivity was 76.4% (26/34). Twenty samples showed monomicrobial growth, while only six samples showed polymicrobial growth of organisms. The most common organism isolated was Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biofilm production was seen more in polymicrobial organisms, 91.66 % (11/12). A high level of resistance to chlorine compounds was seen in biofilm-producing microorganisms, especially those that produced robust biofilms.
 Conclusion: Resistance of biofilms against high levels of chlorine has implications for the delivery of safe drinking water. Drug resistance was seen in these organisms, which can be transmitted from drinking water sources to humans. Therefore, it is recommended that biofilm production should be evaluated in drinking water samples regularly..J Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 12(4):17-24.

It Is So Nice to See You: ACE Is Back!

“More than 20 years ago, the Webb team set out to build the most powerful telescope that anyone has ever put in space. . . . Today we can say that design is going to deliver.” —Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for NASA's Science Mission I readily admit, the time since ACE19 has been trying. The decisions to cancel ACE20 and ACE21 were hard to make. The tipping point in each case was AWWA's commitment to protecting public health—a commitment that extends beyond the delivery of safe drinking water to include safety at AWWA events for members and water colleagues around the world. As we know all too well, there was no possible way to hold ACE safely in 2020 and 2021. All of which makes this year that much more special. So, what do we have in store for ACE22? To start with, we will open the conference with a talk that is nothing short of out of this world. The opening-session keynote speaker is Thomas Zurbuchen, NASA's associate administrator for the Science Mission Directorate. My hope is he will talk about his work finding water on Mars and what it means for us here on Earth. Also, I suspect he will speak to the importance of the James Webb Space Telescope—the world's largest and most powerful space science telescope, which has the ability to view distant worlds around other stars. Speaking of looking forward, AWWA will officially launch its Water 2050 program at ACE22. This program will focus on water in the mid-century and the drivers that will take us there. The idea behind Water 2050 is that, by understanding these drivers—sustainability, technology, economics, governance, and social and demographic factors—water professionals can take steps to create our desired water future. As is the case for many things, Water 2050 (like NASA's Webb telescope) requires starting the work well in advance of needing the results. The reality is that in water years, 2050 is not that far away, so starting now is critical. At ACE22, the easiest way to learn more about AWWA's Water 2050 is to visit the AWWA pavilion on the exhibit floor. If you are an emerging professional (or the mentor for one), look for announcements at ACE about AWWA's Transformative Leaders Academy. This yearlong program is a mix of virtual and face-to-face events. It focuses on the leadership skills needed by the next generation of water leaders—those who will take us to 2050. We are fortunate to have partnered with WaterNow Alliance on this program and to have received a grant that allows us to waive the tuition for this inaugural year. The technical programs will be chock-full of the information you need, including the latest on the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021, the newest thinking from the US Environmental Protection Agency, and approaches to addressing cybersecurity. Check out the full ACE program on the AWWA Events app. As you would expect, the exhibit floor will be a great place to reconnect with business partners. The exhibitors are ready to greet you and provide updates. Many events like the Tapping Contest, Hydrant Hysteria, and Best of the Best water taste test will also be on the exhibit floor. And stop by the Innovation Hub, powered by Isle Utilities, to learn about emerging technologies and innovation. Wednesday evening, everyone can gather at the Wrap Party to celebrate the tradition of passing the gavel. This year's gavel-passing will not only symbolize a change in leadership but also how the water community is emerging stronger after facing three years of previously unknown challenges. Finally, I have a feeling that many ACE events will begin with someone saying, “It is so nice to see all of you!” I chuckle every time I hear that phrase, yet I know that people say it because it is true. Over the past three years, we have missed being together and now, as with other COVID-related limitations, that too can come to an end. See you at ACE22!

Determining the Levels of Some Heavy Metals in Springs and Groundwater Wells in the Northeastern Region of Libya

This study was designed to detect heavy metals (Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu) in several springs and groundwater wells in the northeastern region of Libya. Samples were collected from different regions in both seasons (dry and wet). An atomic absorption spectrophotometry equipped with Slotted Tube Atomic Trap (STAT) was used. The limit of detection (LOD) was in the range of 0.008 to 0.03 μg mL-1, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was in the range of 0.02 to 0.09 μg mL-1. % RSD (relative standard deviations) ranged between 0.0001 to 0.329%. Results showed the presence of heavy metal residues in the regions in two seasons (dry-wet) during the study in some springs and groundwater wells. The zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and Copper (Cu) values were below permitted limits, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), Libyan National Center for Standardization (LNCSM), and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Lead (Pb) in the dry season was much higher than the wet season in accordance with WHO and LNCSM. The other values were below permissable limits according to WHO, LNCSM, and FAO. This study’s results show the presence of dangerous levels of lead during the dry season in the groundwater wells on SahlAlmarj I, Alabyar III. Overall, the investigation of chemical and agricultural fertilizers is an effective method of monitoring the quality of drinking water. Such investigations are needed to identify possible sources of contamination of storage tanks and pipelines to ensure the delivery of safe drinking water to end-users.

A Stepped Wedge Cluster-Randomized Trial Assessing the Impact of a Riverbank Filtration Intervention to Improve Access to Safe Water on Health in Rural India

Sustainable and low-cost methods for delivery of safe drinking water in resource-limited settings remain suboptimal, which contributes to global diarrhea morbidity. We aimed to assess whether delivery of riverbank filtration-treated water to newly installed water storage tanks (improved quality and access, intervention condition) reduced reported diarrhea in comparison to delivery of unfiltered river water (improved access alone, control condition) in rural Indian villages. We used a stepped wedge cluster-randomized trial (SW-CRT) design involving four clusters (villages). Selection criteria included village size, proximity to a river, and lack of existing or planned community-level safe water sources. All adults and children were eligible for enrollment. All villages started in the control condition and were sequentially randomized to receive the intervention at 3-month intervals. Our primary outcome was 7-day-period prevalence of self- or caregiver-reported diarrhea, measured at 3-month intervals (five time points). Analysis was by intention to treat. Because blinding was not possible, we incorporated questions about symptoms unrelated to water consumption to check response validity (negative control symptoms). We measured outcomes in 2,222 households (9,836 participants). We did not find a measurable reduction in diarrhea post-intervention (RR: 0.98 [95% CI: 0.24-4.09]); possible explanations include low intervention uptake, availability of other safe water sources, low baseline diarrheal prevalence, and reporting fatigue. Our study highlights both the difficulties in evaluating the impact of real-world interventions and the potential for an optimized SW-CRT design to address budgetary, funding, and logistical constraints inherent in such evaluations.

Shigella flexneri: an emerging pathogen

Shigella flexneri is a leading etiologic agent of diarrhea in low socioeconomic countries. Notably, various serotypes in S. flexneri are reported from different regions of the world. The precise approximations of illness and death owing to shigellosis are missing in low socioeconomic countries, although it is widespread in different regions. The inadequate statistics available reveal S. flexneri to be a significant food and waterborne pathogen. All over the world, different antibiotic-resistant strains of S. flexneri serotypes have been emerged especially multidrug-resistant strains. Recently, increased resistance was observed in cephalosporins (3rd generation), azithromycin, and fluoroquinolones. There is a need for a continuous surveillance study on antibiotic resistance that will be helpful in the update of the antibiogram. The shigellosis burden can be reduced by adopting preventive measures like delivery of safe drinking water, suitable sanitation, and development of an effective and inexpensive multivalent vaccine. This review attempts to provide the recent findings of S. flexneri related to epidemiology and the emergence of multidrug resistance.

Investigation of Maintenance Impacts on Flow Rates in Ceramic Disc Water Filters

While many low-tech drinking water treatment technologies have been developed in an effort to improve delivery of safe drinking water to low income populations in the developing world, a continuing challenge for ceramic water filters (CWFs) is the deterioration over time of flow rate throughput. While the initial flow rate may be acceptable, significant declines in the flow throughput take place in the absence of a maintenance regime. In response, attaining more acceptable long-term performance is critical, to ensure adequacy of volumes to low income populations and imperative that improved guidance for the end-user as to the frequency and impact of cleaning regimes which is currently deficient in the literature be made available. This study describes research into the flow throughput trends of ceramic water filters and concludes that brushing the external surface of a CWF every 2 ~ 3 days maintains acceptable flow rates (> 1 L/h) for extended periods of time (average over 2.5 years of acceptable performance). An average lifetime throughput volume of 7308 L was observed; corresponding to a per area lifetime throughput volume of 9.7 L/cm2 (for a 20 cm dual disc apparatus with surface area = 648 cm2). While many low-tech drinking water treatment technologies have been developed in an effort to improve delivery of safe drinking water to low income populations in the developing world, a continuing challenge for ceramic water filters (CWFs) is the deterioration over time of flow rate throughput. While the initial flow rate may be acceptable, significant declines in the flow throughput take place in the absence of a maintenance regime. In response, attaining more acceptable long-term performance is critical, to ensure adequacy of volumes to low income populations and imperative that improved guidance for the end-user as to the frequency and impact of cleaning regimes which is currently deficient in the literature be made available. This study describes research into the flow throughput trends of ceramic water filters and concludes that brushing the external surface of a CWF every 2 ~ 3 days maintains acceptable flow rates (> 1 L/h) for extended periods of time (average over 2.5 years of acceptable performance). An average lifetime throughput volume of 7308 L was observed; corresponding to a per area lifetime throughput volume of 9.7 L/cm2 (for a 20 cm dual disc apparatus with surface area = 648 cm2).

Succession of bacterial and fungal communities within biofilms of a chlorinated drinking water distribution system

Understanding the temporal dynamics of multi-species biofilms in Drinking Water Distribution Systems (DWDS) is essential to ensure safe, high quality water reaches consumers after it passes through these high surface area reactors. This research studied the succession characteristics of fungal and bacterial communities under controlled environmental conditions fully representative of operational DWDS.Microbial communities were observed to increase in complexity after one month of biofilm development but they did not reach stability after three months. Changes in cell numbers were faster at the start of biofilm formation and tended to decrease over time, despite the continuing changes in bacterial community composition. Fungal diversity was markedly less than bacterial diversity and had a lag in responding to temporal dynamics. A core-mixed community of bacteria including Pseudomonas, Massillia and Sphingomonas and the fungi Acremonium and Neocosmopora were present constantly and consistently in the biofilms over time and conditions studied.Monitoring and managing biofilms and such ubiquitous core microbial communities are key control strategies to ensuring the delivery of safe drinking water via the current ageing DWDS infrastructure.

Extreme events, water quality and health: A participatory Bayesian risk assessment tool for managers of reservoirs

Extreme weather events pose major challenges for the delivery of safe drinking water, especially in a country like Australia. As a consequence, a participatory Bayesian Network modelling approach was used to develop a risk assessment tool for estimating, and ranking, water quality-related health risks associated with extreme weather events. The model was developed for a large dam supplying a water treatment plant in New South Wales, Australia. This methodological approach addresses challenges associated with fragmented data (for model parameterisation) and parameter uncertainty by eliciting and integrating quantitative and qualitative data (including expert opinions) into a single framework. Key-stakeholders were engaged in developing and then refining separate conceptual models around the three critical parameters of turbidity, water colour and Cryptosporidium sp. These three conceptual models were then combined into a single conceptual model, which then formed the basis for the Bayesian Network model. The final risk assessment tool was able to quantify the sensitivity of the water treatment plant's efficacy (ability to supply high quality potable water) in response to different extreme event scenarios. Overall, landslip-related events were the most concerning for water quality-related health risks, but an emergent outcome was how the scenarios were ranked quite differently depending on the group, and expertise of the stakeholders' opinions used to run the model. Such tool can assist stakeholders for an effective long-term water resource management.

No Shortage of Challenges

There is much going on internationally with AWWA and the Journal. Last October I had the opportunity to travel to India, where I witnessed the water trials faced in that country and how the AWWAIndia initiative was developing. It opened my eyes to just how much work remains to be done to bring 24/7 delivery of safe drinking water to the entire county. AWWAIndia recently held a training program on effective utility management and asset management in Mumbai, and more training events are planned to help transfer needed skills to the local level.

Acute gastrointestinal illness following a prolonged community-wide water emergency.

The drinking water infrastructure in the United States is ageing; extreme weather events place additional stress on water systems that can lead to interruptions in the delivery of safe drinking water. We investigated the association between household exposures to water service problems and acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) and acute respiratory illness (ARI) in Alabama communities that experienced a freeze-related community-wide water emergency. Following the water emergency, investigators conducted a household survey. Logistic regression models were used to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for self-reported AGI and ARI by water exposures. AGI was higher in households that lost water service for ⩾7 days (aPR 2·4, 95% CI 1·1-5·2) and experienced low water pressure for ⩾7 days (aPR 3·6, 95% CI 1·4-9·0) compared to households that experienced normal service and pressure; prevalence of AGI increased with increasing duration of water service interruptions. Investments in the ageing drinking water infrastructure are needed to prevent future low-pressure events and to maintain uninterrupted access to the fundamental public health protection provided by safe water supplies. Households and communities need to increase their awareness of and preparedness for water emergencies to mitigate adverse health impacts.

Awareness, adoption and implementation of the water safety plan methodology: insights from five Latin American and Caribbean experiences.

Considerable effort has been made worldwide to disseminate information and provide technical assistance to encourage the adoption and implementation of the water safety plan (WSP) methodology. Described since the third edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, a WSP provides guidance for water utilities to ensure the delivery of safe drinking water and protect health. Attention is now being given to understand the success of efforts to advance adoption of the WSP methodology in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. More specifically, there is interest in knowing how early adopters developed strategies to implement the WSP methodology and what challenges exist for further implementation. To better understand adoption and implementation trends, key informants from five LAC countries were interviewed and case studies were developed to reveal the diversity of WSP approaches applied in the region. Results indicate that WSP implementation is more widespread than previously reported. Respondents affirmed that the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality are routinely used as a model for country-level drinking-water regulations, which has led to uptake of the WSP methodology. Interview respondents also revealed innovative national strategic approaches for WSP implementation.

Evaluation of source water protection strategies: A fuzzy-based model

Source water protection (SWP) is an important step in the implementation of a multi-barrier approach that ensures the delivery of safe drinking water. Available decision-making models for SWP primarily use complex mathematical formulations that require large data sets to perform analysis, which limit their use. Moreover, most of them cannot handle interconnection and redundancy among the parameters, or missing information. A fuzzy-based model is proposed in this study to overcome the above limitations. This model can estimate a reduction in the pollutant loads based on selected SWP strategies (e.g., storm water management ponds, vegetated filter strips). The proposed model employs an export coefficient approach and account for the number of animals to estimate the pollutant loads generated by different land usages (e.g., agriculture, forests, highways, livestock, and pasture land). Water quality index is used for the assessment of water quality once these pollutant loads are discharged into the receiving waters. To demonstrate the application of the proposed model, a case study of Page Creek was performed in the Clayburn watershed (British Columbia, Canada). The results show that increasing urban development and poorly managed agricultural areas have the most adverse effects on source water quality. The proposed model can help decision makers to make informed decisions related to the land use and resource allocation.

Reviewing source water protection strategies: A conceptual model for water quality assessment

Source water protection (SWP) is the most important step in the implementation of a multi-barrier approach that ensures cost-effective delivery of safe drinking water. However, implementing SWP strategies can be a challenging task owing to technical and administrative issues. Decision support tools for effective implementation of SWP strategies can be very helpful that may lead to saving time and resources. This paper critically reviews different SWP strategies available for surface waters and also discusses various formulations for water quality assessment at the source. Source water quality regulations in Canada and other jurisdictions around the world are also discussed. Stormwater management ponds, vegetated filter strips, pollution control by effective agricultural practice (e.g., cover crop and crop rotation) and fencing are found to be frequently mentioned in those regulations. These strategies are discussed in details in terms of their key features to achieve the highest possible removal efficiencies for selected water quality parameters. Finally, a conceptual model is proposed to evaluate water quality changes at the source based on selected source water protection strategies. The model uses SWP strategies as a means to reduce possible pollutants in the source water. It also utilizes simple mass balance equations (dilution) to estimate the concentrations in the receiving water bodies and does not consider physico-chemical and other reactions. A surrogate measure, water quality index (WQI), based on selected water quality parameters, is used for the assessment of source water quality.