Defensive Warfare Research Articles

Bridging the Chasm in the Holy Lands: The Antithesis of Islamic Law to Warfare in the Middle East

The present article scrutinizes the intricacies surrounding defensive warfare aimed at reclaiming territories perceived by Muslims as under non-Muslim occupation through the lens of the four Sunni schools and Twelver Shia perspectives. In Shia jurisprudence, in the absence of the twelfth Imam, the concept of defensive war does not extend to reclaiming Islamic territories per se; rather, Muslims are not sanctioned to engage in warfare solely for territorial defense. Instead, the imperative for Muslim involvement in armed conflict arises only when the fundamental tenets of Islam face jeopardy. According to Shia’s legal interpretation, jeopardizing the core principles of Islam implies a scenario where the erasure of Prophet Muhammad’s legacy and the utter annihilation of Sharia law are imminent. Such a predicament is not contingent upon the occupation of Islamic lands. However, Sunni jurisprudence posits a prerequisite for Muslims to engage in warfare, even in defense, necessitating a certainty of prevailing in the conflict. Consequently, given the contemporary milieu, wherein the requisite conditions for assured victory remain unattainable and are likely unattainable, defensive warfare for territorial reclamation is deemed impermissible. The findings of this inquiry propose an Islamic legal framework that advocates abstention from resorting to warfare concerning the mentioned territories in current circumstances, absolving Muslims of any obligation in this regard. Closing the avenue of armed conflict thereby paves the way for alternative avenues such as negotiation, reconciliation, and peace-building. It underscores Islam’s reverence for human life, prioritizing it over territorial concerns.

귀주대첩과 현종의 청야전술

The Goryeo-Khitan War was a prolonged war that lasted over ten years, covering almost half of King Hyeonjong’s reign. The battle of Guiju was the most important battle of the war, putting an end to it. Most of the previous studies on the subject focused on the performance of Kang Gam-chan that led the Goryeo forces in the war to examine the Battle of Guiju, but there is a need to figure out the war situations from a more macroscopic perspective since war is a massive clash between two states. Based on this problematic consciousness, this study focused on the roles of King Hyeonjong, who checked the Goryeo forces on the whole through three formal military inspections for approximately a year before the breakout of the last war. He appointed Kang Gam-chan and granted military power to him for the northern part. Once the war broke out, he kept a close watch on the war situations. Once finding out that the Khitan forces marched toward the capital of Goryeo to avoid the main force units of Goryeo, he employed a rather extreme defensive measure to scorch the fields around Gaegyeong. His measure was effective in the strategy of the Khitan that tried to end the war swiftly with its cavalry-led forces. Both Kang’s tactics of reacting to the turning movement of the Khitan forces by dividing the Goryeo forces and King Hyeonjong’s tactics of scorching the field around the capital to fight the Khitan forces were achievements made possible by their reading of Khitan’s movement early and their close liaison between the front and rear. In other words, Goryeo did not win a victory at the Battle of Guiju by simply engaging in actions at the front. They engaged in effective information warfare and defensive strategies at the rear for the victory. As King Hyeonjong succeeded in defending Gaegyeong by employing the tactics of scorching the fields, Goryeo was able to take the lead on the battleground from the Khitans and induce the retreating Khitan forces to battlefields favorable to them. These findings indicate that Goryeo won the Battle of Guiju based on the organic entanglement of its several tactical movements from the start to the end of the war. The present study examined various situations before and after the Battle of Guiju more broadly by reviewing again the rear strategies of Goryeo under the war situations. It is generally said that Goryeo won the last Goryeo-Khitan war lastly punctuated by the Battle of Guiju thanks to the competence of a superb leader named Kang Gam-chan, but a closer look into the war shows that Goryeo clearly provided support and developed organic operations at the rear separate from the Goryeo troops at the front. King Hyeonjong especially played an effective role by deciding to implement the tactics of scorching the field in the defensive warfare of Gaegyeong at the midway point of the war.

Franco-British military co-operation in the Great Gas War 1915-1918

Because the Anglophone historiography has tended to marginalize the French contribution to the allied chemical war during the Great War 1914-1918, this study has attempted to re-balance the historical narrative by emphasizing the collective nature and importance of this joint Franco-British enterprise. By interrogating a raft of under-utilized primary evidence in the French and British archives, elements of the two armies’ defensive and offensive gas warfare performance have been reassessed through the co-operation prism. The investigation demonstrates how closely, comprehensively, and effectively the two allies worked together in chemical weapon production and exchange, research and development, anti-gas protection, and indirect battlefield applications.

REASSESSING THE POLISH BRETHREN ON MAGISTRACY, PACIFISM, AND WARFARE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

AbstractThe Polish Brethren, usually known as Socinians, were perhaps the most infamous Christian sect belonging to the so-called ‘Radical Reformation’. Renowned for their anti-Trinitarian beliefs and their rationalistic approach towards religion, the Brethren also discussed theological-political concepts such as the legitimacy of magistracy and warfare. Relevant literature on the Brethren's socio-political views underestimates their participation in contemporary debates on the ius belli, describing them as pacifists who generally opposed politics and violence until the 1650s, when some of them began defending a more conventional approach towards magistracy and warfare. This article proves that this shift toward a more standard Protestant position occurred as early as the 1620s, when Johannes Crell and Jonas Szlichtyng, two of the most prominent spokespersons among the Brethren, reconciled politics and the Brethren's faith in their writings. The article highlights how the historical situation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth urged them to revise their views on magistracy and warfare, and it argues that they were assisted in this by their education in European universities, especially the Lutheran Academy of Altdorf near Nuremberg, which provided them with different perspectives on the legitimacy of defensive warfare.

Analysis of CGF’s Behavioral Simulation Based on Motives

In this paper, we analysed the Agent’s behavioral simulation based on motives. In Army Combat Complex System, the motives of agent can affect the behaviours of CGF (Computer Generated Forces) obviously. In this paper, we did the experiment that how the different motives effect on the CGF. The conclusion is that different motives settings will get different effect. In conditions of some urgency task, such as in offensive warfare, we may choose the Motives Settingl. The Motives setting2 may be used in the other conditions, such as in defensive warfare.

Collective action problems in offensive and defensive warfare

A collective action problem exists not only in offensive warfare, but also in defensive situations. The collective action problem is dealt with in the same way in offensive and defensive warfare: by strong leadership, discipline, rewards and punishments, strong group identification, strict religiosity, and intolerance of deviants. This behavior is explained in terms of evolutionary psychology.

The importance of raiding ecology and sex differences in offensive and defensive warfare.

De Dreu and Gross offer a compelling synthesis of a growing literature on the psychology of attack and defense. I argue that human raiding ecology suggests the need to endogenize attacker-defender move order as well as opportunities for tactical mismatch available to defenders. Perhaps most significantly, I draw attention to the surprising lacunae in sex differences across attack and defense.

Justice, Jihad and Duty: The Quranic Concept of Armed Conflict

The Quran is among the most widely read books on earth, yet it is also commonly misunderstood and misquoted. Islams critics say that it contains exhortations of violence against non-Muslims and a concept of war that is far more unbridled and indiscriminate than the western Just War theory. This study is not a general overview or critique of the Islamic laws of war, which are the varied and sometimes contradictory opinions of medieval Islamic jurists, mainly from the ninth to thirteenth centuries CE. Instead, this study analyses only the Quranic text itself and, by putting its verses into historical context, attempts to explain its codes of conduct in order to determine what it actually requires or permits Muslims to do in terms of the use of military force. It concludes that the Quran is clear: Muslims must not undertake offensive violence and are instructed, if defensive warfare should become unavoidable, always to act within a code of ethical behaviour that is closely similar to the western Just War tradition. This study attempts to dispel any misperceptions that Islams holy book advocates the subjugation or killing of non-Muslims and reveals that, on the contrary, its key and unequivocal concepts governing warfare are based on justice and a profound belief in the sanctity of human life.

A “Total War”? Rethinking Military Ideology in the Book of Lord Shang

TheBook of Lord Shang, commonly identified as a major work of the so-called Legalist school, is also an important, albeit much neglected treatise in the history of Chinese military thought. Beyond specific recommendations concerning both defensive and offensive warfare, the book presents a coherent view that the state should restructure its socioeconomic and cultural policies in order to turn every man into a valiant soldier. The book epitomizes the ideology of “total war” in which the differences between civilian and military affairs are blurred. The society is profoundly militarized and the army, in turn, is profoundly bureaucratized.This article explores military thought in theBook of Lord Shangand focuses on its views of mobilization, indoctrination of soldiers, military discipline, rules of military engagement, and military command. I further deal with the question of why the book’s military ideology has been all but neglected after the end of the Han dynasty.

The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842: Court and Frontier in Byzantium during the Last Phase of Iconoclasm, by Juan Signes Codoñer

Byzantium began to emerge from an era of grim, defensive warfare in the 820s. It was still a highly militarised state but was now ready to discard guerrilla methods for a more conventional style of combat. There were signs of revival in the economic and cultural fields. All of this was despite the political instability caused by the rebellion of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s and the damage inflicted on Byzantine resources by the disastrous Bulgarian war (811–16) initiated by Nikephoros I (802–11). By the late 820s the Amorian regime, established in a bloody coup by Michael II (820–9), had consolidated its position, binding together a core group of Armenian families through a network of marriage alliances. Michael’s son and heir Theophilos was well placed to move to a more aggressive policy towards Byzantium’s great eastern adversary, the Islamic imperial state of the early Middle Ages. Juan Signes Codoñer, joint editor with Michael Featherstone of the forthcoming critical edition of Theophanes Continuatus, Books I–IV, has written what is, in effect, a massive commentary on Book III, which covers Theophilos’ reign (829–42). His prosopographical analysis of the political base of the regime builds on a recent, meticulous study by Christian Settipani of the Caucasian element in the governing elite of Byzantium from the sixth to the ninth centuries. He refrains from delving into the intricacies of the second phase of Iconoclasm, partly on the sensible grounds that we cannot know what were the personal beliefs of emperors or how strongly these beliefs were held. He is surely right to suggest that whatever moves they made were largely dictated by political and religious pressures at the time. His principal concern is with foreign relations in the most active arena of diplomacy and conflict at the time, the Middle East and the lands to north and south of the Caucasus. He has much that is original to offer to the careful reader of the text of Theophanes Continuatus and the closely associated history of Joseph Genesios.

Il soldato e l'atleta: Guerra e sport nella Grecia antica by Paola Angeli Bernardini

412 PHOENIX War in Ancient Greece”) similarly looks at women’s participation in civic life, especially in times of warfare, in both mythological and historical examples. She suggests that the best model of interpretation for their actions is not that of inversion, but of cooperation: war is an event which involves both men and women, in complementary ways. Payen extends this argument in a different direction, noting that the standard claim that women are noncombatants because they are not citizens is only a partial truth. Rather, men are involved in formal battle lines (in which there is the possibility of glory), and women are included in forms of defensive warfare (i.e., when things become more desperate). Sebillotte Cuchet’s contribution treats women warriors in Caria, as part of a larger exploration of the “historicity” of some of our sources. In a typical hermeneutic circle, narratives in which women are said to take part in battle are usually interpreted as being less historical than those in which they do not because women are not warriors. Archaeological evidence provides a way out of this circle, as does careful reexamination of historical examples, stripping away the lens of Athenian (polarizing) interpretation. So too, on the Roman side, Hallett on Fulvia, who is first fictionalized and then demonized, provides a model. Hallett uses contemporary sources to show that Fulvia’s military involvement was seen as part of a larger, unfeminine pattern of behaviour, including sexual self-assertiveness à la the elegiac puella, which (some, but not all) the sources find deeply problematic. Stéphane Benoist (“Women and Imperium in Rome: Imperial Perspectives”) examines Roman women who were associated with rulership in various ways over a long sweep of centuries: from the passages in which women are described as dux to imperial women in their various roles as mothers of emperors and of the army. Essentially, the sources struggle with presenting power as legitimate for women, even when they do not find it threatening. Finally, Henriette Harich-Schwarzbauer (“The Feminine Side of War in Claudian’s Epics”) looks at how Stilicho’s idealized wife Serena and personified virtues such as Roma are triangulated with eunuchs, who take the traditional feminine place of the Other along with more negative personifications. It is difficult to summarize a volume as varied as this one. Suffice it to say that it offers a thorough examination of the status quaestionis and that I anticipate that it will receive a variety of responses, expansions, collaborations, and the like. The editors are to be commended for gathering together such a solid collection of thought-provoking work. Florida State University Laurel Fulkerson Il soldato e l'atleta: Guerra e sport nella Grecia antica. By Paola Angeli Bernardini. Bologna: Il Mulino. 2016. Pp. 270, 11 figs. Over a hundred years ago, E. N. Gardiner introduced Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals with reflections on the practical character of Greek athletics as a preparation for war: “Every citizen was a soldier, physical fitness was a necessity to him, and his athletic exercises were admirably calculated to produce this fitness.”1 The links between sport and war have been the subject of a number of more recent works in English as well.2 1 E. N. Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals (London 1910) 1. 2 N. B. Reed, More than Just a Game: The Military Nature of Greek Athletic Contests (Chicago 1998); N. B. Crowther, “Athlete as Warrior in the Ancient Greek Games: Some Reflections,” Nikephoros BOOK REVIEWS/COMPTES RENDUS 413 Now Paola Angeli Bernardini, well known for her work on sport, myth, and early Greek poetry, has applied her deep learning and sensitivity to literary texts to what she regards as something new (7–8): a systematic investigation of the relations between the soldier and the athlete down to the end of the Peloponnesian War. It is during the archaic period that these links are strongest, as is shown by Sparta’s domination of the Olympics while it was embroiled in its wars with the Messenians. Certainly Angeli Bernardini covers a lot of ground, laid out in an introduction and five chapters: “A Possible Comparison”; “The Competition’s...

For Whom the Plowshares and Pruning Hooks Toil: A Tradition-Historical Reading of Joel 4.10

Despite the dense allusions in the book of Joel, the creative characteristics of Joel have not been clearly understood. In particular, the intertextual connection of the famous reversal of the phrase of Mic. 4.3bα/Isa. 2.4bα in Joel 4.10 have remained largely overlooked. This article draws an analogy with the modern, digital art form known as Photomosaic, arguing that recognizing smaller images within a larger whole is a helpful tool that augments tradition-historical readings. Such an approach enables us to gain a multi-dimensional appreciation of Joel 4.10 with its adjacent verses, on both macro and microscopic levels. This approach reveals that Joel as a Schriftprophet, like a Photomosaic artist, created his own big picture, the Day of Yhwh (an eschatological day of holy war against nations), out of the images of intertextually linked traditions. The traditions used as bits of images are the Holy War, the victory of Jehoshaphat in the valley, ancient defensive warfare, and agriculture in the Judean hill country. The conclusion offered here is that Joel probably used these traditions to intensify the meaning of participating in the alluded eschatological Day of Yhwh by wielding of weapons with agricultural implements to the Iron Age farmers.

Virtual Design of a New Type of Entertainment Machine and Dynamics Simulation of the Conveyor Track

This paper proposes a new educational strategy tower of defensive warfare entertainment machine which relies on linkage institutions, introduces two sets of role and combines with strategic defense warfare game ideology. Based on the virtual prototype of modeling which is made by SolidWorks and 3DMAX and a dynamics analysis on hitting force and friction of the opposition role in the attack on track and recycling process, it explains the feasibility of manufacture of the new entertainment machine.

Discussion on Marketing Principle of Offensive Warfare

In today's market and economic conditions, marketing and the importance of an enterprise is self-evident. Business is war, and marketing is an important part of the entire battlefield. In business, one who has mastered a marketing initiative grasps the initiative of victory. The times we live in is an era of marketing, can be said that we are constantly engaged in marketing, marketing of goods, marketing services, marketing news, marketing strategy. Regardless of the marketing is what we must have the means of marketing; we must master the few means of marketing, such as defensive warfare, offensive warfare, flanking warfare, guerrilla warfare. This paper discusses the marketing principle of offensive warfare. We are talking about marketing offensive warfare is more than an industry, III enterprises are prepared, when an enterprise is strong enough, strong enough to attack when his leader, can be used an offensive war. Of course, this attack is not random, nor is it blind; it must follow certain principles to be. Start from the connotation of the marketing offensive warfare, of a marketing offensive warfare principles and implementation strategies.

WAGING DEFENSIVE WAR: THE IDEA AND ITS NORMATIVE IMPORTANCE

During the 20th century some versions of just war doctrine came to restrict the condition of just cause to defense, that is, these just war doctrines now hold it to be a necessary condition for the moral justifiability of any war that it be undertaken for defensive purposes. These purposes need not be self – defensive but may be defensive of the welfare and legitimate rights of other polities and groups. Some reasons for war are obviously not defensive, for example, the acquisition of territory or the assertion of imperialist control. But the boundaries of defensive warfare are unclear. I will consider two important cases in which this lack of clarity is proving to be morally significant: namely, preventive and punitive warfare undertaken for the sake of the goal of defense. I will argue that the normative rationale for limiting just cause to defense does not allow these as legitimate forms of defense. That rationale moves towards the view that one should not intend the deaths of enemies but only the restraint of their wrongdoing, and preventive and punitive warfare appear to involve intending the deaths of enemies.

War and self-defense: a critique and a proposal

Discussions of the ethics of war commonly – and reasonably – assume that defensive wars are morally justified if any wars are. They also assume that explanations of why defensive warfare is morally justified must be based on principles that also explain the moral justifiability of individual self-defense. David Rodin has recently argued that the second of these assumptions is mistaken, and he has developed an alternative account of the morality of defensive warfare. The purpose of this paper is to show that Rodin’s argument fails, and to explain how defensive warfare can indeed be justified in terms of principles that also apply to individual self-defense.

The founding of the Dutch Republic: war, finance, and politics in Holland, 1572-1588

Introduction PART I: THE HABSBURG NETHERLANDS, 1549 - 1567 Prologue to Part I: Prince Philip's Tour of the Low Countries, 1549 1. The Habsburg-Valois School of War 2. War Finance and Fiscal Devolution 3. Holland as a Body Politic, I: The Habsburg Era, to 1567 PART II: WAR IN HOLLAND, OCTOBER 1572 - JULY 1576 Prologue to Part II: Repression, Rebellion, and Revolt, 1567 - 1572 4. Toward a Workable Strategy for Defensive Warfare 5. The New Fiscal Regime 6. Holland's Rulers: the Urban Oligarchies PART III: HOLLAND AND THE 'CLOSER UNION,' TO 1582 Prologue to Part III: The States General at War with Spain 7. Holland's Garden 8. Paying for an Ever More Expensive War 9. Holland as a Body Politic, II: Seeds of Discord PART IV: A NEW REPUBLIC, 1583 - 1588 Prologue to Part IV: Parma's Offensive, 1583 - 1588 10. The Securing of Holland's Forward Frontier, 1583 - 1588 11. Holland's Pyramid of Credit 12. Partisan Strife, 1583 - 1588: Holland and its Critics Epilogue: The Dutch Republic in the European Republican Tradition Abbreviations and Bibliography

Defensive Warfare, Prevention and Hegemony. The Justifications for the Franco-Spanish War of 1635 (Part II)

Defensive Warfare, Prevention and Hegemony. The Justifications for the Franco-Spanish War of 1635 (Part II)

Defensive Warfare, Prevention and Hegemony. The Justifications for the Franco-Spanish War of 1635 (Part I)

In the weeks after the French herald Gratiollet had formally declared war upon the Cardinal-Infante, the French government released two lengthy justifications for its actions. On June 6, 1635, Louis XIII had the Declaration du Roy, sur l’ouverture de la guerre contre le Roy d’Espagne issued, which was registered by the Parliament of Paris, the highest court of the realm, on 18 June.143 Around the same date, a second te�t was promulgated: the Manifeste du Roy Contenant les justes causes que sa Majeste a eues de declarer la guerre au Roy d’Espagne.144 The Declaration was co-signed and edited, if not written, by Abel de Servien (15931659), a jurist by training and Secretary of State for War. It had been written while the drafting process of the Manifeste was already well underway, and it was partly based on it. The Manifeste was based on an original draft by Father Joseph (1577-1638), one of Richelieu’s main advisers on foreign policy.145 It had later been revised by Claude le Bouthillier (1581-1652), a jurist too and Secretary of State for Finance, and by Richelieu.146

Old wine in new bottles: China—Taiwan computer-based ‘information warfare’ and propaganda

This article considers the operational utility of computer-based information warfare across the Taiwan Strait. It reviews the capacity of both the People's Republic of China and Taiwan to wage offensive and defensive information warfare, and acknowledges that both sides have invested and continue to invest considerable amounts of resources into developing their information warfare ability, both have taken part in the Revolution in Military Affairs process that has redefined military strategy in an age of high-technology warfare, and computer-based information warfare will serve as part of a broader military strategy that revolves principally around conventional methods of attack and deterrence. However, using a critical security approach the article suggests that the capacity to wage computer-based information warfare is currently limited, and plays more of a psychological role in the propaganda offensive that continues across the Taiwan Strait. Hence, computer-based information warfare is ‘old wine in new bottles’.