Defense Factors Research Articles

Evaluation of anti-ulcer and analgesic activity of Annona squamosa leaves

In the present research work, medicinally important dried leaves of Annona squamosa were demonstrated for the identification of phytochemical compounds and Pharmacological activities. Plants were very important in medicinal field; they have similar properties as conventional drugs. Medicinal plants are safer due to their lower chances of adverse effects and better compatibility to human being. Different solvents are used to extract the biological compounds present in the leaves; among them methanol shows more biological compounds. Chemical constituents derived from plant source have a very long history in treatment of human diseases. Nearly 70% of new chemical entities reported during the past decades were from natural products. In the present study, on abdominal section histopathological observation for analgesic and antiulcer activities were reported. Analgesic activity was observed to the level of clinical importance, this activity was due to the presence of flavonoids and antiulcer activity exhibited due to mucosal defensive factor, than can be used for treatment of peptic ulcer. Further research is required to identify the active phytoconstituents present in the extract and experimentation on the healing action of drug as well as less side effects. The present investigation on mode of action may give way for establishment of new anti-ulcer and analgesic activity.

A Spectrophotometric Method to Determine Minimal Erythema Dose for Ultraviolet Radiation in Human Skin.

Background/Objectives: Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) induces oxidative stress in the skin by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can lead to inflammatory conditions including erythema (a sign of sunburn). This clinical study aims to develop an instrumental evaluation method to determine the minimal erythema dose (MED) for UVR. Methods: Fourteen human subjects aged 27 to 57 years (48.93 ± 8.54) participated in this study. Six subsites were designated on the test skin site of each subject and irradiated with UVR at different doses. The examiner visually assessed erythema, determining the 'visual MED'. Additionally, the a* value (a chrominance parameter presenting greenness to redness) was measured using a spectrophotometer as an indicator of erythema. The a* values of the UVR-irradiated subsites were compared to the non-irradiated control value, and the differences were referred to as Δa*. The Δa* value of the subsites irradiated with UVR at the 'visual MED' was referred to as the Δa*VMED for each subject. The mean of the Δa*VMED values of all subjects was chosen as a criterion value for the 'instrumental MED'. The 'instrumental MED' was defined as the lowest dose of UVR that causes an Δa* value equivalent to the criterion value. The 'visual MED' and 'instrumental MED' values of all subjects were subjected to correlation analysis. Results: The mean of the Δa*VMED values of all subjects was 1.88 ± 0.8. The means of the 'visual MED' and 'instrumental MED' values (in J m-2 unit) of all subjects were 300.14 ± 84.16 and 303.29 ± 77.99, respectively. In Pearson correlation analysis, the 'instrumental MED' and 'visual MED' values had a very strong positive correlation with each other (r = 0.864, p = 0.000). Conclusions: This study suggests that the instrumental evaluation method of MED based on the spectrophotometric measurement of the a* values can complement or replace the visual evaluation method and that this method will be useful in monitoring skin tolerance to oxidative stress affected by prooxidant factors and defensive factors.

The antibacterial defence role of β-defensin in the seahorse testis

Seahorses represent the only known group of animals with male pregnancy. Seahorses have small testis that produce a limited quantity of sperm. To date, the response of this immune-privileged organ to pathogenic infections has not been reported. β-defensin (BD) is an important innate immune defence factor against pathogens in vertebrate testis. To elucidate its immunoprotection in seahorse testis, we identified the Hippocampus erectus β-defensin (HeBD) sequence in its genome via phylogenetic tree and protein-sequence structure analysis. Gene-expression analysis showed that HeBD was highly expressed in the seahorse testis and was significantly upregulated after bacterial infection, indicating that HeBD expression was related to testicular immune responses. Furthermore, antibacterial activity testing demonstrated that the mature HeBD peptide exhibited broad-spectrum aggregation activity but only moderate antibacterial activity. We found that the mature HeBD mature significantly neutralised bacterial endotoxin activity. In conclusion, our results imply that HeBD serves an immunoprotective role in seahorse testis.

Features of changes in nonspecific factors of immunological reactivity in obesity

Introduction. The study of pathogenetic factors of obesity is an urgent task of modern medicine. The formation of obesity is characterized by changes in the activity of individual mechanisms of innate immunity. At the same time, the values of laboratory indicators that characterize them are often within the current boundaries of the reference values of laboratory indicators of the immunity of a healthy person. This complicates the pathogenetic assessment of the mechanisms of nonspecific immunological reactivity in obesity and determines the need for further study of the characteristics of nonspecific immune defense factors in this pathology.Aim. To identify the features of changes in cellular and humoral factors of nonspecific immunological reactivity in obesity.Materials and methods. A single-center cross-sectional, one-time controlled study was conducted with the participation of 118 people, of which 87 people were obese patients (BMI 37.2 [34.1; 42.05] kg/m2), 31 people had normal body weight (BMI 21.9 [ 20.2; 23.5] kg/m2) and were included in the control group. All patients underwent a study of lipid profile (total cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins, very low-density lipoproteins, triglycerides), carbohydrate metabolism (glucose, insulin, glycated hemoglobin), C-reactive protein, indicators of cellular and humoral factors of nonspecific immunity (leukogram, cytokine profile, C3-C4 complement components).Results. An increase in the total number of leukocytes was revealed, due to neutrophil granulocytes against the background of the development of a disproportion between the percentage and absolute value of the number of lymphocytes and monocytes, the concentration of C3 and C4 complement components, C-reactive protein, as well as an increase in the level of IL-6, which confirms the presence of low-grade chronic inflammation in obese patients. Statistically significant correlations of immunological parameters with anthropometric data, indicators of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were revealed.Conclusion. The results of the study indicate that obesity causes activation of certain cellular and humoral mechanisms of nonspecific immune defense involved in the formation of the inflammatory process. Confirmation of the presence of a latent inflammatory process in obesity is an increase in the level of leukocytes and their individual cellular forms, C-reactive protein, C3 and C4 complement components, IL-6. A feature of the changes is the presence of fluctuations in the values of the studied indicators within the current boundaries of the reference values of laboratory indicators, which makes it difficult to timely diagnose chronic inflammation in obesity

The role of nesfatin-1 in kidney diseases.

Nesfatin-1 is a recently discovered protein with a pleiotropic function on various organs, including kidneys. This molecule presents antiapoptotic, antihyperglycemic, antioxidative, and anorectic features. Available data regarding the role of nesfatin-1 in kidney function and diseases focuses on chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury, blood pressure, and renal cell carcinoma. Various studies have shown that the levels of nesfatin-1 were increased in patients with diabetic kidney disease (DKD); therefore, it was suggested that nesfatin-1 might act as an early DKD marker. Furthermore, the potential protective function of nesfatin-1 against inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and apoptosis in kidney tissues was described in several studies. Alternatively, as reported in the literature, a positive correlation between blood pressure elevation and nesfatin-1 levels was noted. Moreover, nesfatin-1 might exert influence on renal cell carcinoma progression and invasion of cancerous cells. Nesfatin-1 shows considerable potential for acting as a prognostic marker or a defensive factor for kidney diseases; however, further investigation, especially in the pediatric population, is still required.

NFE2L2 and ferroptosis resistance in cancer therapy.

NFE2-like basic leucine zipper transcription factor 2 (NFE2L2, also known as NRF2), is a key transcription factor in the cellular defense against oxidative stress, playing a crucial role in cancer cell survival and resistance to therapies. This review outlines the current knowledge on the link between NFE2L2 and ferroptosis - a form of regulated cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation - within cancer cells. While NFE2L2 activation can protect normal cells from oxidative damage, its overexpression in cancer cells contributes to drug resistance by upregulating antioxidant defenses and inhibiting ferroptosis. We delve into the molecular pathways of ferroptosis, highlighting the involvement of NFE2L2 and its target genes, such as NQO1, HMOX1, FTH1, FTL, HERC2, SLC40A1, ABCB6, FECH, PIR, MT1G, SLC7A11, GCL, GSS, GSR, GPX4, AIFM2, MGST1, ALDH1A1, ALDH3A1, and G6PD, in ferroptosis resistance. Understanding the delicate balance between NFE2L2's protective and deleterious roles could pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies targeting NFE2L2 to enhance the efficacy of ferroptosis inducers in cancer therapy.

Tight junction protein LSR is a host defense factor against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the small intestine

The identification of host factors with antiviral potential is important for developing effective prevention and therapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, by using immortalized cell lines, intestinal organoids, ex vivo intestinal tissues and humanized ACE2 mouse model as proof-of-principle systems, we have identified lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) as a crucial host defense factor against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the small intestine. Loss of endogenous LSR enhances ACE2-dependent infection by SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) protein-pseudotyped virus and authentic SARS-CoV-2 virus, and exogenous administration of LSR protects against viral infection. Mechanistically, LSR interacts with ACE2 both in cis and in trans, preventing its binding to S protein, and thus inhibiting viral entry and S protein-mediated cell–cell fusion. Finally, a small LSR-derived peptide blocks S protein binding to the ACE2 receptor in vitro. These results identify both a previously unknown function for LSR in antiviral host defense against SARS-CoV-2, with potential implications for peptide-based pan-variant therapeutic interventions.

Pipolins are bimodular platforms that maintain a reservoir of defense systems exchangeable with various bacterial genetic mobile elements.

Defense genes gather in diverse types of genomic islands in bacteria and provide immunity against viruses and other genetic mobile elements. Here, we disclose pipolins, previously found in diverse bacterial phyla and encoding a primer-independent PolB, as a new category of widespread defense islands. The analysis of the occurrence and structure of pipolins revealed that they are commonly integrative elements flanked by direct repeats in Gammaproteobacteria genomes, mainly Escherichia, Vibrio or Aeromonas, often taking up known mobile elements integration hotspots. Remarkably, integrase dynamics correlates with alternative integration spots and enables diverse lifestyles, from integrative to mobilizable and plasmid pipolins, such as in members of the genera Limosilactobacillus, Pseudosulfitobacter or Staphylococcus. Pipolins harbor a minimal core and a large cargo module enriched for defense factors. In addition, analysis of the weighted gene repertoire relatedness revealed that many of these defense factors are actively exchanged with other mobile elements. These findings indicate pipolins and, potentially other defense islands, act as orthogonal reservoirs of defense genes, potentially transferable to immune autonomous MGEs, suggesting complementary exchange mechanisms for defense genes in bacterial populations.

Understanding the MetaBirkin: Trademark Law and an Appropriate Legal Standard for NFTs

This note argues that the recently decided trademark case, Hermès v. Rothschild, highlighted the flaws of the Polaroid factors and their singular focus on determining consumer confusion, and makes a case for an expanded understanding of a copyright fair use defense in trademark law. Two forms of fair use are already acknowledged in the trademark context, but neither are comparable to the much stronger fair use exception in copyright law. The factors in the copyright fair use defense seem to strike directly at the heart of the most salient concerns in Hermes v. Rothschild, while the Polaroid factors seem to allow only tangential considerations of certain key factors.

Game-Changing Antibiotic Solutions for Chronic UTIs in Women

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are prevalent in primary healthcare settings, with persistent recurrences posing significant challenges. These recurrences necessitate extended antibiotic use, adversely affecting patients' quality of life, mental health, and physical activity. The evolving defense mechanisms of bacteria against the host immune system and antibiotics complicate treatment. This article examines the pathomechanisms of recurrent UTIs, focusing on bacterial defense factors. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for developing innovative treatments, particularly non-antibiotic methods, to reduce antibiotic use and its associated side effects, thereby improving patients' overall well-being. The review synthesizes current knowledge on the pathomechanisms, diagnostics, and treatments for recurrent UTIs, emphasizing the impact on patients' mental and physical health. It highlights innovative, non-antibiotic treatment approaches.

SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants resist spike cleavage by human airway trypsin-like protease.

Soluble host factors in the upper respiratory tract can serve as the first line of defense against SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this study, we described the identification and function of a human airway trypsin-like protease (HAT), capable of reducing the infectivity of ancestral SARS-CoV-2. Further, in mouse models, HAT analogue expression was upregulated by SARS-CoV-2 infection. The antiviral activity of HAT functioned through the cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein at R682. This cleavage resulted in inhibition of the attachment of ancestral spike proteins to host cells, which inhibited the cell-cell membrane fusion process. Importantly, exogenous addition of HAT notably reduced the infectivity of ancestral SARS-CoV-2 in vivo. However, HAT was ineffective against the Delta variant and most circulating Omicron variants, including the BQ.1.1 and XBB.1.5 subvariants. We demonstrate that the P681R mutation in Delta and P681H mutation in the Omicron variants, adjacent to the R682 cleavage site, contributed to HAT resistance. Our study reports what we believe to be a novel soluble defense factor against SARS-CoV-2 and resistance of its actions in the Delta and Omicron variants.

Characterization of Tissue Immunity Defense Factors of the Lip in Primary Dentition Children with Bilateral Cleft Lip Palate.

Bilateral cleft lip palate is a severe congenital birth defect of the mouth and face. Immunity factors modulate immune response, inflammation, and healing; therefore, they are vital in the assessment of the immunological status of the patient. The aim of this study is to assess the distribution of Gal-10, CD-163, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, HBD-2, HBD-3, and HBD-4 in tissue of the bilateral cleft lip palate in primary dentition children. Five patients underwent cheiloplasty surgery, where five tissue samples of lip were obtained. Immunohistochemical staining, semi-quantitative evaluation, and non-parametric statistical analysis were used. A statistically significant increase in HBD-2, HBD-3, and HBD-4 was found in skin and mucosal epithelium, hair follicles, and blood vessels. A notable increase was also noted in IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10 in the mucosal epithelium and CD163 in blood vessels. The connective tissue of patients presented with a statistically significant decrease in Gal-10, IL-10, and HBD-3. Spearman's rank correlation revealed multiple significant positive and negative correlations between the factors. Upregulation of CD163 points to increased angiogenesis but the increase in IL-4 and IL-10 as well as the decrease in Gal-10 points to suppression of excessive inflammatory damage. Decreased connective tissue healing and excessive scarring are suggested by the decrease in HBD-3 and IL-10 and the increase in IL-6.

Probiotics as a Therapeutic Approach for Non-infectious Gastric Ulcer Management: a Comprehensive Review.

A gastric ulcer is a stomach lining or nearby intestine disruption caused by acid and pepsin. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and NSAIDs are the primary culprits behind stomach infections that can lead to gastric ulcers and other digestive disorders. Additionally, lifestyle choices such as alcohol consumptionand cigarette smoking, stress, and exposure to cold environments can also contribute to non-infectious gastric ulcers. Various treatments are available for gastric ulcers, including antibiotics, anticholinergics, and antacids. However, potential concerns include antibiotic resistance, side effects, and treatment failure. Considering this, there is a need for an alternative approach to manage it. Fortunately, probiotics, typically Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, show potential for healing gastric ulcers, offering a non-invasive alternative to conventional treatments. A notable concern arises from applying probiotic bacteria stemming from the propensity of pathogenic bacteria to develop antimicrobial resistance in response to antibiotic therapies. Therefore, the use of yeast becomes more imperative due to its natural resistance to antibacterial antibiotics for antibacterial-treated patients. Probiotic bacteria and yeasts could heal gastric ulcers by regulating the immune response, reducing inflammation, and restoring the balance between defensive and aggressive factors of the gastric layer. This comprehensive review provides an in-depth analysis of the benefits of probiotics and their potential as a therapeutic treatment for non-infectious gastric ulcers, along with other probiotic options. In particular, this review provides a succinct summary of multiple literature studies on probiotics, emphasising the distinctive properties of yeast probiotics, as well as their (bacteria and yeasts) application in the management of non-infectious gastric ulcers.

A Review of Antiulcer Activity of Some Medicinal Plants

Peptic ulcer is a gastrointestinal disorder and with increased prevalence. Peptic ulcer is breaking of endothelial lining of stomach and exposing underlying tissues. Peptic ulcer occurs due to high secretion of acid and reduced defensive factors in stomach and duodenum. It is imbalance between aggressive and defensive factors. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and Helicobacter pylori infection also increases the risk of peptic ulcer. Indiscriminate use of synthetic drugs leads to adverse effects and concomitant use of antibiotics potentiates drug-drug interaction thus search of drugs from natural sources especially herbs is need of hour. several herbal medicines have been evaluated for its antiulcer efficacy using several ulcer inducing models in laboratory animals. Present study aims at review of gastroprotective and ulcer healing potential medicinal herbs and compilation of data. This article is only restricted to antiulcer efficacy of the medicinal plants. This review presents information about the anti-ulcer efficacy of medicinal plants and various antiulcer models used to screen them. Keywords: Peptic ulcer, Gastric ulcer, Gastroprotective activity, Phyllanthus urinaria, Adiantum lunulatum, Ulcer healing activity

Study on the Function of SlWRKY80 in Tomato Defense against Meloidogyne incognita.

WRKY transcription factors (TFs) can participate in plant biological stress responses and play important roles. SlWRKY80 was found to be differentially expressed in the Mi-1- and Mi-3-resistant tomato lines by RNA-seq and may serve as a key node for disease resistance regulation. This study used RNAi to determine whether SlWRKY80 silencing could influence the sensitivity of 'M82' (mi-1/mi-1)-susceptible lines to M. incognita. Further overexpression of this gene revealed a significant increase in tomato disease resistance, ranging from highly susceptible to susceptible, combined with the identification of growth (plant height, stem diameter, and leaf area) and physiological (soluble sugars and proteins; root activity) indicators, clarifying the role of SlWRKY80 as a positive regulatory factor in tomato defense against M. incognita. Based on this phenomenon, a preliminary exploration of its metabolic signals revealed that SlWRKY80 stimulates different degrees of signaling, such as salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ETH), and may synergistically regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and scavenging enzyme activity, hindering the formation of feeding sites and ultimately leading to the reduction of root gall growth. To our knowledge, SlWRKY80 has an extremely high utilization value for improving tomato resistance to root-knot nematodes and breeding.

Exploring the Underlying Mechanisms of Preventive Treatment Related to Dietary Factors for Gastric Diseases.

Gastric diseases have emerged as one of the main chronic diseases in humans, leading to considerable health, social, and economic burdens. As a result, using food or "food and medicinal homologous substances" has become an effective strategy to prevent gastric diseases. Diet may play a crucial role in the prevention and mitigation of gastric diseases, particularly long-term and regular intake of specific dietary components that have a protective effect on the stomach. These key components, extracted from food, include polysaccharides, alkaloids, terpenoids, polyphenols, peptides, probiotics, etc. The related mechanisms involve regulating gastric acid secretion, protecting gastric mucosa, increasing the release of gastric defense factors, decreasing the level of inflammatory factors, inhibiting Helicobacter pylori infection, producing antioxidant effects or reducing oxidative damage, preventing gastric oxidative stress by inhibiting lipid peroxides, activating Nrf2 signaling pathway, and inhibiting NF-κB, TLR4, and NOS/NO signaling pathways.

CCR2-dependent placental migration of inflammatory monocytes suppresses abnormal pregnancies caused by Toxoplasma gondii infection.

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gongii) is a zoonotic protozoan parasite that causes congenital toxoplasmosis, including fetal death, abortion, stillbirth, morphological abnormalities, and premature birth. Primary T. gondii infection in pregnant women results in congenital toxoplasmosis. C-C chemokine receptor (CCR) 2 is reportedly a critical host defense factor against T. gondii infection. However, details of the role of CCR2 in the host immune response to T. gondii in congenital toxoplasmosis remain unclear. Here, we infected pregnant CCR2-deficient mice with T. gondii, resulting in stillbirth, embryonic resorption, fetal morphological abnormalities, and preterm delivery at significantly higher rates than those in pregnant wild-type mice. Consistent with the severity of abnormal pregnancy, a large area of placental hemorrhage and a large number of T. gondii infections around the hemorrhagic area were observed in the placentas of CCR2-deficient mice. In addition, the accumulation of inflammatory monocytes in the placenta was reduced in CCR2-deficient mice during infection. We further confirmed that the adoptive transfer of inflammatory monocytes collected from wild-type mice into T. gondii-infected pregnant CCR2-deficient mice effectively suppressed placental damage and abnormal pregnancy. Collectively, CCR2 contributes to pregnancy maintenance by regulating the migration of inflammatory monocytes into the placenta of T. gondii-infected pregnant mice.

Natural products targeting ferroptosis pathways in cancer therapy (Review).

Ferroptosis inducers (FIN) have a key role in cancer therapy and provide novel and innovative treatment strategies. Although many researchers have performed FIN screening of synthetic compounds, studies on the identification of FIN from natural products are limited, particularly in the field of drug development and combination therapy. In this review, this gap was addressed by comprehensively summarizing recent studies on ferroptosis. The causes of ferroptosis were categorized into driving and defensive factors, elucidating key pathways and targets. Next, through summarizing research on natural products that induce ferroptosis, the study elaborated in detail on the natural products that have FIN functions. Their discovery and development were also described and insight for clinical drug development was provided. In addition, the mechanisms of action were analyzed and potential combination therapies, resistance reversal and structural enhancements were presented. By highlighting the potential of natural products in inducing ferroptosis for cancer treatment, this review may serve as a reference for utilizing these compounds against cancer. It not only showed the significance of natural products but may also promote further investigation into their therapeutic effects, thus encouraging research in this field.

Pretreatment with Dan-Shen-Yin granules alleviates ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage in rats by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis via Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway

BackgroundGastric ulcer (GU) is a common gastrointestinal disease with high morbidity that may be caused by various pathogenic factors. Dan-Shen-Yin (DSY), a traditional prescription, improves myocardial and gastrointestinal functions; however, its effect on GU and the underlying mechanisms requires further research. PurposeWe aimed to evaluate the pharmacodynamics of DSY granules in GU using three different animal models and explore their potential mechanisms. MethodsDSY granules were manufactured and subjected to quality control by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Three GU models were established using ethanol, aspirin, or water immersion restraint combined with aspirin and examined using the Guth method and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. The effects of DSY granules on gastric mucosal glycoproteins and the release of defensive and aggressive factors in ethanol-induced GU were measured using periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining and ELISA. TUNEL staining and detection of apoptosis-related proteins were used to evaluate the role of DSY granules on apoptosis. Potential mechanisms were predicted using network pharmacology, molecular docking, and western blot to verify the related targets and pathways. ResultsDSY granules were prepared for the first time and quality control standard was established. Pharmacodynamic evaluation indicated that DSY granules significantly reduced the GU index and gastric mucosal injury in the three GU models, and the GU inhibition rate of DSY granules was superior to omeprazole in ethanol-induced GU model (60.32 % vs. 21.96 %). Further studies in ethanol-induced GU model revealed that DSY granules increased the levels of the defensive factors (PGE2, NO, SOD, CAT, TAOC, and GSH) and decreased the levels of aggressive factors (MDA, TNF-α, and IL-1β), thereby inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammation, attenuating gastric mucosal injury. Moreover, the results of TUNEL staining and western blot showed that DSY granules suppressed apoptosis by reducing the ratios of Bax/Bcl-2 and cleaved-Caspase-3/Caspase-3. In addition, the results of network pharmacology and molecular docking suggested that the mechanisms of DSY granules against GU may be related to the Akt-related signaling pathway. Further study confirmed that DSY granules significantly reduced the ratio of p-Akt/Akt and promoted the expression of Nrf2 and NQO1, protecting the gastric mucosa. ConclusionsOur results indicated that DSY granules had protective effects on GU caused by different mechanisms, especially ethanol-induced GU. DSY granules alleviated gastric mucosal damage by inhibiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, which may be associated with the regulation of Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway. Therefore, DSY granules may be a promising drug for the treatment of GU.

Morphological and biochemical responses of Vicia faba (faba beans) grown on fly ash amended soil in the presence of Rhizobium leguminosarum and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus.

An experiment was conducted in the greenhouse to investigate the feasibility of Vicia faba grown on different fly ash concentrations (0-30%) and dual inoculation with Rhizobium and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Sampling was done 45days after sowing to analyse the plant growth parameters, photosynthetic attributes (total chlorophyll and carotenoids content), protein content, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content, defensive factors (antioxidant activity and proline content) and damage markers (lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species and cell viability). The results revealed that the application of fly ash (FA) alone did not result in any significant improvement in growth, biochemical and physiological parameters. However, dual inoculation showed a synergistic impact on legume growth, photosynthetic pigments, protein, proline, and cell viability. Rhizobium, AMF and 10% FA showed maximum enhancement in all attributes mentioned. 20% and 30% fly doses showed a reduction in growth, photosynthesis and antioxidants and caused oxidative stress via lipid peroxidation. The results showed that the synergistic or combined interactions between all three variables of the symbiotic relationship (Rhizobium-legume-AMF) boosted plant productivity.