Marijuana Decriminalization Research Articles

Utilizing derivatizing agents for the differentiation of cannabinoid isomers in complex food, beverage and personal-care product matrices by ambient ionization mass spectrometry

Recent legalization and decriminalization of marijuana at the state level has not only contributed to a rise in the recreational use of Cannabis sativa, also known simply as Cannabis, but also to an increase in the range of matrices into which cannabinoids derived from it are infused. Traditional methods for analyzing these products, which are typically chromatography-based, are often matrix-dependent and demand time-consuming and resource-intensive sample preparation protocols that are highly nuanced and not readily applicable to multiple matrix types. Furthermore, the differentiation of cannabinoids can be troublesome without implementing lengthy run times to achieve resolution of chromatographic peaks. With complex samples such as edibles, beverages, personal-care products, and plant materials, a method that can be more universally applied to rapidly detect and differentiate between cannabinoids is highly desirable. In this study, foods and personal-care products under the categories of sweets, spreads, condiments/toppings, beverages, oils, and commercial body products were spiked with cannabinoids including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabicitran (CBT), and cannabigerol (CBG). Chemical derivatization of the samples with N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) followed by direct analysis in real time – high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) analysis readily revealed the presence of cannabinoids in the products despite the matrix complexity (i.e., the contributions from matrix-derived peaks did not interfere with the differentiation of cannabinoids). When analyzed under ambient soft ionization conditions, CBT, THC and CBD are indistinguishable because they are isomers with a molecular formula of C21H30O2 and a protonated monoisotopic mass of 315.2324. However, due to the different number of hydroxyl (-OH) groups (zero in CBT, one in THC, and two in CBD) that engage with the derivatizing agent, the cannabinoids are differentiated based on the mass disparities of the protonated adducts formed (m/z 315.2324, 387.2719 and 459.3119 for CBT, THC, and CBD, respectively), which is readily revealed by DART-HRMS. This approach circumvents some of the challenges currently encountered by forensic laboratories in the analysis of highly complex and diverse cannabinoid-infused matrices. The results show proof-of-concept for an approach that can aid in the differentiation of cannabinoid isomers by DART-HRMS that accommodates high matrix diversity and complexity, and demonstrates the potential for the approach to be integrated into current workflows for the forensic analysis of Cannabis-related materials and evidence.

Analysis of the Impact of Marijuana Legalization on Smoking among Adolescents before the Age of 13

Adolescent smoking, with its detrimental effects on working memory and increased likelihood of heavy smoking when initiated at a younger age, this paper examines whether marijuana decriminalization policies affect adolescents’ likelihood of smoking before age 13. This paper mainly uses the stack Difference In Difference method to judge the relationship between the two and further proves the time-invariant through the stack event study method. Moreover, the CS model (double robust) was used to observe the different effects of different periods. This study attempts to discover the causes of early adolescent smoking and, to some extent, verify the possibility that cigarettes and marijuana are complementary commodities. This study found that marijuana decriminalization policies increased adolescents’ likelihood of smoking before age 13 by about 0.173%. At the same time, the time study shows that the policy may have a lag effect.

Global Impacts of Legalization and Decriminalization of Marijuana and Cannabis

The purpose of this article is to discuss global public health impacts of legalization and decriminalization of marijuana and cannabis regarding physical and mental health impacts as well as accident and death reports.

Decriminalization of marijuana opens doors for some scientists.

Decriminalization of marijuana opens doors for some scientists.

Acceptance towards decriminalization of medical marijuana among adults in Selangor, Malaysia.

IntroductionThe issue of decriminalization of medical marijuana has gained public attention globally due to the decisions of various governments in developed and developing countries who have decriminalized marijuana for medical purposes. The action was the result of the change in perception towards medical marijuana use, which is now believed to be safe, acceptable, and should be decriminalized. Due to the progress of modernization and the wide access to information, the change in perception towards medical marijuana seems to be inevitable and might have already permeated among the public in Malaysia. However, at the moment there is no baseline data to determine any of this claim.ObjectiveTo determine the prevalence and factors associated with acceptance towards decriminalization of medical marijuana among adults in Selangor, Malaysia.MethodologyThe study was a cross-sectional study conducted in year 2021 among 462 adults aged 18 years old and above in Selangor, Malaysia. The respondents were sampled using a multistage random sampling. The data was collected via self-administered questionnaires and has been analyzed using SPSS version 25.ResultMore than half of the respondents in this study (64.7%) show acceptance towards the decriminalization of medical marijuana in Malaysia. The results of statistical tests indicate that there are significant associations between age (p < 0.001), gender (p = 0.005), ethnicity (p < 0.012), level of education (p < 0.011), employment status (p = 0.001), ever smoked (p < 0.001), given up smoking (p = 0.002), ever used substance (p < 0.001), current substance use (p < 0.001), given up substance (p < 0.001), exposure to medical marijuana-related content (p < 0.001), perceived risk associated with medical marijuana use (p < 0.001), perceived risk of harm of medical marijuana use (p < 0.001), and perceived approval of medical marijuana use (p < 0.001) with acceptance towards decriminalization of medical marijuana. The predictors for acceptance towards decriminalization of medical marijuana are perceived high approval of medical marijuana use (aOR = 7.023, p < 0.001, 95%CI = 3.534,13.955), perceived low risk of medical marijuana (aOR = 5.716, p < 0.001, 95%CI = 2.828,11.554), perceived low risk of harm from medical marijuana use (aOR = 3.480, p = 0.001, 95%CI = 1.702,7.114), current substance use (aOR = 2.264, p = 0.050, 95%CI = 1.001,5.118), and ever used substance (aOR = 2.005, p = 0.004, 95% CI = 0.054,0.576).ConclusionThe results of the survey show that the current acceptance level towards decriminalization of medical marijuana is considerably high. However, the acceptance is mainly among those who are exposed to the substance and those who perceive low risk of medical marijuana. Thus, a further exploration of this phenomenon is needed, especially by increasing the sample size and expanding the study location to other states.

Colorado Family Physicians and Medical Marijuana: Has Recreational Marijuana Changed Physician Attitudes and Behaviors?

Medical marijuana is permitted in 36 states; 15 states allow recreational marijuana use. Previous surveys showed that family physicians were concerned about the physical and mental health effects of medical marijuana use, but the impact of recreational marijuana legalization and liberalization of marijuana laws on physician attitudes is unknown. A survey was distributed to 1582 members of the Colorado Academy of Family Physicians' listserv, with items on individual and practice characteristics and experience with and attitudes toward medical marijuana. The results of this survey were compared with that of a nearly identical survey conducted with the same group in 2011. RESULTS: The proportion of family physician respondents in Colorado recommending medical marijuana to patients was the same in 2020 as in 2011 at 31%; 53% of physicians said that legislation allowing recreational marijuana did not change their approach to medical marijuana with patients. Family physicians were more likely to be in favor of legalization of recreational marijuana in 2020 than in 2011. CONCLUSIONS: Marijuana decriminalization and a robust marijuana economy in Colorado have not led to more family physicians recommending marijuana to patients, but there is now greater support for the legalization of recreational marijuana among family physicians.

Inter-Party Competition, Public Electoral Pressure, and Democratic Strength: Refining Political Explanations of Incarceration Trends in the U.S., 1980 – 2010

The purpose of this research is to advance the politics of mass imprisonment literature by testing and specifying the macro-explanations of the state-level incarceration change in the United States (U.S.) between 1980 and 2010. Specifically, I account for mechanisms of inter-party competition and public electoral pressure neglected in prior research. To accomplish this goal, I utilize random coefficient models designed to control for repeated annual measures of state-level data that overwhelm traditional analytic techniques. Findings suggest that violent crime, partisan affiliation of state legislators and governors, probation rates, citizen ideology, marijuana decriminalization, and recidivist-focused laws are associated with incarceration as hypothesized, as well as the African American presence net of crime and socioeconomic disadvantage. Contributing to the theoretical debates on democracy and punishment, this paper demonstrates that inter-party competition and public electoral pressure amplify incarceration in the context of Democratic Party dominance, where no liberalizing effects of competition were found. I conclude that legal and extralegal factors are associated with incarceration and suggest that the public did not oppose criminal justice expansion via democratic feedback mechanisms, so both penal populism (Pratt, 2008) and popular punitivism (Campbell et al., 2017) are valid interpretations of imprisonment politics during the analyzed period.

Association of Cannabis Use and Neurodevelopment Among Adolescents

Source: Albaugh MD, Ottino-Gonzalez J, Sidwell A, et al Association of cannabis use during adolescence with neurodevelopment [published online ahead of print June 16, 2021]. JAMA Psychiatry. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1258Investigators from multiple institutions reviewed data from a longitudinal study to assess the association between cannabis use during adolescence and cerebral cortical thickness development as measured using MRI. Participants were enrolled in the IMAGEN study, conducted across 8 European sites, when they were approximately 14 years old. Using a standard protocol, MRI scans were obtained of the adolescents’ brains at enrollment and a 5-year follow-up visit. In addition, at baseline and at follow-up, study participants completed the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD), in which lifetime use of alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis is self-reported using a 7-point scale with usage ranging from “never” to “>40 times.” Only youths who reported never using cannabis at baseline and had baseline and 5-year data were included in the present study. At the 5-year follow-up, participants also completed the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, a 30-item self-report that assesses 3 domains of impulsiveness (attentional, non-planning, and motor). Alcohol consumption was estimated at baseline and 5-year follow-up with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test Consumption scale.Cross-sectional regression models were used to assess the association between lifetime cannabis use and local cortical thickness. Longitudinal models were used to identify areas of accelerated age-related cortical thinning associated with cannabis use and to evaluate the association between the 3 domains of impulsiveness as measured by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale.A total of 799 youths who were cannabis-naïve at baseline were included in the analyses. Mean age of these participants at baseline was 14.0 ±0.4 years, and 56.3% were female. At the 5-year follow-up, 208 participants (26.0%) reported 1-9 lifetime uses of cannabis, and 161 (20.2%) reported 10 to >40 uses. On cross-sectional analysis, there was a dose-dependent, statistically significant negative association between cortical thickness in the left prefrontal and right prefrontal cortices and lifetime cannabis use assessed at the 5-year follow-up. No statistically significant relationships were found between lifetime cannabis use and cortical thickness on baseline MRI results, suggesting that differences observed at follow-up did not precede cannabis use. On longitudinal analysis, statistically significant associations between accelerated age-related thinning in both the left and right prefrontal cortices were found. There was no significant difference in the effects of cannabis on cortical thickness between females and males in either the cross-sectional or longitudinal analyses. Cannabis-related cortical thinning in the right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex was significantly associated with more attentional impulsiveness as measured by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale.The authors conclude that cannabis use during adolescence was associated with altered neurodevelopment.Dr Doolittle has disclosed no financial relationship relevant to this commentary. This commentary does not contain a discussion of an unapproved/investigative use of a commercial product/device.Cannabis use has become more popular and socially accepted in recent years. Many states have decriminalized marijuana use and expanded licensing for dispensaries.1 Nearly 50% of adolescents consider marijuana to be easily accessible, and 28% believe it to have no or low health risks.1 Nearly 1 in 10 persons older than 12 years of age has used marijuana within the past month.2 Large studies of marijuana derivatives, such as tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, have demonstrated improvement in a range of medical conditions, such as chemotherapy-related nausea, spasticity in multiple sclerosis, and chronic pain.3,4 As marijuana becomes more widely accepted, however, its deleterious effects are often overlooked. This is especially important among adolescents, whose cerebral cortex has not yet fully matured.5 In fact, the current authors describe thinning of the cerebral cortex of adolescent brains based on the cumulative dose of marijuana ingested. In addition, these anatomic effects are associated with a measurable behavioral change: attentional impulsiveness.While the decriminalization of marijuana has resulted in important legal reform, marijuana is best regarded as a drug, akin to alcohol. Use by adolescents ought to be discouraged, except when its medical benefit exceeds its potential harmful effect. While the investigators in the current study do not address the impact of marijuana beyond the 5-year follow-up, other large population studies highlight the association of marijuana use and harmful outcomes, such as respiratory problems, increased depression and anxiety, impaired executive function, poor school performance, and poverty.6,7The current study is the largest longitudinal study of its kind, making an important contribution to ongoing debate of marijuana’s harm and efficacy. Despite marijuana’s increasing popularity, pediatric caregivers should continue to advise caution.Marijuana use among adolescents is associated with cortical thinning and increased impulsiveness.

Cannabis: A vexing foe or a perioperative acquaintance?

The federal decriminalization of marijuana is enjoying a renaissance; Congress has currently delayed a vote on a bill to remove marijuana from the Controlled Substances Act. However, poised to legalize medical marijuana, many states will see an appreciable rise in the availability of cannabis products resulting in widespread use among patients within the perioperative setting. What is best practice to care for such patients remains elusive, although the list of therapeutic benefits of cannabis continues to grow. As we learn more by way of growing acceptance in the political and scientific realms, this summary serves as an appraisal to perioperative clinicians of the various subtleties of cannabis use by patients presenting for operative procedures.

Perceptions of Marijuana Decriminalization Among Young Sexual and Gender Minorities in Chicago: An Initial Measure Validation and Test of Longitudinal Associations with Use.

Background: There is a high rate of marijuana use among young sexual and gender minorities (SGM) and, as a result of recent state-level, fragmented marijuana laws, there is also likely high variability in their perceptions of marijuana decriminalization (PMD). Methods: Data came from two cohorts of young SGM (aged 16-29) in Chicago, RADAR and FAB400, recruited from 2015 to 2017 (N=1,114). We developed a measure to assess PMD among this population, performed initial validation, and assessed its relationship to longitudinal changes in patterns of marijuana use and geographic distribution. Results: In multivariable models, mean PMD score was prospectively associated with general (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]=2.00; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.46-2.77), but not problematic marijuana use. An increase in perceived decriminalization also predicted a significant increase in odds of general (aOR=1.67; 95% CI: 1.18-2.39) marijuana use. Significant concentrations of high PMD scores existed in across the city. Conclusion: These results suggest further study of longitudinal changes in marijuana use as decriminalization or legalization increases in the U.S. to better understand shifting trends in use.

75 Acute Toxicity Associated With Cannabis Edibles Following Decriminalization of Marijuana in Michigan

75 Acute Toxicity Associated With Cannabis Edibles Following Decriminalization of Marijuana in Michigan

Physical Harm Reduction in Domestic Violence: Does Marijuana Make Assaults Safer?

Studies on the effect of marijuana on domestic violence often suffer from endogeneity issues. To examine the effect of marijuana decriminalization and medical marijuana legalization on serious domestic assaults, we conducted a difference-in-differences analysis on a panel dataset on NIBRS-reported assaults in 24 states over the 12 years between 2005 and 2016. Assaults disaggregated according to situation and extent of injury were employed as dependent variables. We found that while the total number of assaults did not change, decriminalization reduced domestic assaults involving serious injuries by 18%. From a harm reduction perspective, these results suggest that while the extensive margin of violence did not change, the intensive margin measured by the seriousness of assaults were substantially affected by decriminalization. This result may be partially explained by reductions in offender alcohol intoxication and weapon-involved assault.

Decriminalized, Not Legalized: A Pilot Study of South African University Students’ Views on the Use, Impact, Legalization and Decriminalization of Marijuana

Given the 2018 decriminalization of marijuana in South Africa for personal use and medicinal consumption, the aim of this research was to explore the perceptions of university students regarding the use, impact, legalization, and decriminalization of marijuana. Key findings revealed that a fair number of participants acknowledged using marijuana. When asked about the potential impact of marijuana on users, their families and significant others, they seemed to have a good understanding of the effects of the drug. However, while some participants were aware of the addictive nature of marijuana, others were not aware of the risk of addiction from smoking or ingesting this substance. However, they were able to weigh up the risks as well as the benefits of legalization/decriminalization of marijuana. This study has implications for health care professionals working with youth who use illicit substances such as marijuana, and in developing prevention and intervention programs aimed at the youth.

Medicinal and Recreational Marijuana: Review of the Literature and Recommendations for the Plastic Surgeon.

With the shift in public opinion and legalization of cannabis for therapeutic and recreational use, cannabis consumption has become more common. This trend will likely continue as decriminalization and legalization of marijuana and associated cannabinoids expand. Despite this increase in use, our familiarity with this drug and its associated effects remains incomplete. The aim of this review is to describe the physiologic effects of marijuana and its related compounds, review current literature related to therapeutic applications and consequences, discuss potential side effects of marijuana in surgical patients, and provide recommendations for the practicing plastic surgeon. Special attention is given to areas that directly impact plastic surgery patients, including postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting and wound healing. Although the literature demonstrates substantial support for marijuana in areas such as chronic pain and nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, the data supporting its use for common perioperative problems are lacking. Its use for treating perioperative problems, such as pain and nausea, is poorly supported and requires further research.

The heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization policy on arrest rates in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2009–2018

BackgroundMarijuana decriminalization holds potential to reduce health inequities. However, limited attention has focused on assessing the impact of decriminalization policies across different populations. This study aims to determine the differential effect of a marijuana decriminalization policy change in Philadelphia, PA on marijuana arrests by demographic characteristics. MethodsUsing a comparative interrupted time series design, we assessed whether the onset of marijuana decriminalization in Philadelphia County was associated with reduction in arrests rates from 2009 to 2018 compared to Dauphin County. Stratified models were used to describe the differential impact of decriminalization across different demographic populations. ResultsCompared to Dauphin, the mean arrest rate for all marijuana-related crimes in Philadelphia declined by 19.9 per 100,000 residents (34.9% reduction), 17.1 per 100,000 residents (43.1% reduction) for possession, and 2.8 per 100,000 resident (15.9% reduction) for sales/manufacturing. Arrest rates also differed by demographic characteristics post-decriminalization. Notably, African Americans had a greater absolute/relative reduction in possession-based arrests than Whites. However, relative reductions for sales/manufacturing-based arrests was nearly 3 times lower for African Americans. Males had greater absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests, but lower relative reduction for sales/manufacturing-based arrests compared to females. There were no substantial absolute differences by age; however, youths (vs. adults) experienced higher relative reduction in arrest rates. ConclusionsFindings suggest an absolute/relative reduction for possession-based arrests post-decriminalization; however, relative disparities in sales/manufacturing-based arrests, specifically for African Americans, increased. More consideration towards the heterogeneous effect of marijuana decriminalization are needed given the unintended harmful effects of arrest on already vulnerable populations.

In the Age of Decriminalization, Is the Odor of Marijuana Alone Enough to Justify a Warrantless Search?

The words “I smell the odor of marijuana” have historically granted police access to search persons and their vehicles without any further justification. However, with vastly differing marijuana and hemp laws quickly arising across America, courts have begun to disagree on how to approach search and seizure based on odor alone. An area of law that once seemed untouchable has now been challenged, creating a lack of uniformity across states and jurisdictions, and a need for resolution. The Fourth Amendment warrant exception of the plain-smell doctrine has consistently been used to “rubber stamp” governmental intrusion into fundamental rights. The legalization and decriminalization of hemp and marijuana for medical and recreational use makes the application of the plain-smell doctrine inconsistent and inadequate, and often prejudicial. Additionally, police use boilerplate language to bypass procedural mechanisms set in place for the protection of the people. The Article offers the solution of an odor-plus standard via alternate routes: Supreme Court decision or Congressional intervention. Under such a standard, officers may not use the smell of marijuana alone as reason for probable cause to conduct a warrantless search, but must also meet at least one other delineated criterion.

Marijuana use does not affect the outcomes of bariatric surgery.

The decriminalization of marijuana and legalization of derived products requires investigation of their effect on healthcare-related outcomes. Unfortunately, little data are available on the impact of marijuana use on surgical outcomes. We aimed to determine the effect of marijuana use on 30-day complications and 1-year weight loss following laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (LRYGB) and laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (LSG). At a large academic center, 1176 consecutive patients undergoing primary bariatric surgery from 2012 to 2017 were identified and separated into cohorts according to marijuana use. The only exclusions were 19 patients lost to follow-up. Propensity score matching, using logistic regression according to preoperative age, gender, BMI, and comorbid conditions, yielded 73 patient pairs for the control and study arms. All patients were followed two years postoperatively. Excess BMI lost did not differ between marijuana users and controls at 3weeks (23.0% vs 18.9%, p = 0.095), 3months (42.0% vs 38.1%, p = 0.416), 6months (60.6% vs 63.1%, p = 0.631), 1year (78.2% vs 77.3%, p = 0.789), or 2years (89.1% vs 74.5%, p = 0.604). No differences in the rate of major 30-day postoperative complications, including readmission, infection, thromboembolic events, bleeding events and reoperation rates, were found between groups. Follow-up rate at two years was lower in marijuana users (12.3% vs 27.4%, p = 0.023). This study suggests marijuana use has no impact on 30-day complications or weight loss following bariatric surgery, and should not be a contraindication to bariatric surgery.

This Just Plain Smells

The words “I smell the odor of marijuana” have historically granted police access to search persons and their vehicles without any further justification. However, with vastly differing marijuana and hemp laws quickly arising across America, courts have begun to disagree on how to approach search and seizure based on odor alone. The legalization and decriminalization of hemp and marijuana for medical and recreational use makes the application of the plain-smell doctrine inconsistent and inadequate, and often prejudicial. Additionally, police use boilerplate language to bypass procedural mechanisms set in place for the protection of the people. The Article offers the solution of an odor-plus standard via alternate routes: Supreme Court decision, Congressional intervention, and through various avenues the local level. Under such a standard, officers may not use the smell of marijuana alone as reason for probable cause to conduct a warrantless search, but must also meet at least one other delineated criterion. With criminal justice reforms at the forefront of Louisiana politics, the author suggests that the state begin to lead the nation with policies such as the aforementioned standard, because the way it has been done just plain smells.

Marijuana Decriminalization, Medical Marijuana Laws, and Fatal Traffic Crashes in US Cities, 2010-2017.

Objectives. To determine the impact of city-level cannabis decriminalization and medical marijuana laws (MMLs) on fatal traffic crashes in US cities.Methods. Using a census of fatal traffic crashes from the 2010 to 2017 Fatality Analysis Reporting System, we examined MMLs and cannabis decriminalization on fatal crashes by age and sex of driver. We used a Poisson difference-in-differences approach, exploiting temporal and geographic variation in marijuana decriminalization laws.Results. Cities experienced a 13% increase in fatal crashes involving 15- to 24-year-old male drivers following decriminalization (incidence rate ratio = 1.125; 95% confidence interval = 1.014, 1.249). This effect was immediate and strongest on weekend nights. We found no effect on female drivers or older males. Conversely, we found that MMLs were associated with fewer fatal crashes for both males and females, which was most pronounced in 15- to 24-year-old drivers.Conclusions. Unlike MMLs, which are associated with fewer fatal crashes, cities experienced a relative increase in fatal crashes involving young male drivers following marijuana decriminalization.Public Health Implications. MMLs stipulate consumption occurs at home, whereas decriminalization only lessens the penalty for marijuana possession. Therefore, travel incentives of such laws have heterogeneous effects on traffic safety.

The impact of decriminalization on marijuana and alcohol consumption in Jamaica.

We examine whether marijuana decriminalization in Jamaica, a country that historically has had relatively widespread use of the drug, has led to an increase in its use, the frequency of use and the money spent on it. To this end, we use a national drug survey dataset with extensive information on people's use of, attitudes towards, access to marijuana. Our econometric analysis shows that awareness of the legislation has a positive correlation with the use of the substance. Worryingly, decriminalization positively correlates with the likelihood of first time and general use for youths. There is also some evidence that the legislation results in a substitution away from alcohol towards marijuana consumption for youths. From a policy perspective, a marijuana monitoring system can be implemented to follow the consumption patterns of youths. This should involve establishing school-level programmes that monitor students, and where potential drug users are identified, school officials should intervene to curb students' drug appetite before an escalated use of marijuana.