Psychological Arguments Research Articles

The perception and categorisation of emotional stimuli: A review

When we perceive our environment, we rapidly integrate large amounts of incoming stimulus information into categories that help to guide our understanding of the world. Some stimuli are more relevant for our well-being and survival than others, for example stimuli that signal a threat or an opportunity for growth and expansion. In this review we examine the special role of such “emotional” stimuli in perception and categorisation. To this end, we first discuss some fundamental aspects of perception, with an emphasis on the cognitive process of categorisation. We then tackle the questions: “What is an emotional stimulus?” and “What is an emotion category?” Afterwards, we illustrate, with a review of key findings from the empirical literature, (i) how stimuli are categorised as emotional, and (ii) how the perceptual processing of emotional stimuli is prioritised to allow for a rapid preparation of adaptive responses. To conclude, we discuss how research on the perception of emotional stimuli can contribute to current debates in psychology, namely (i) about the role of bottom-up vs. top-down factors in emotional processing and experience, and (ii) about the nature of the relationship between cognition and emotion.

Teaching and Assessing Critical Thinking Skills for Argument Analysis in Psychology

Critical thinking is a valued educational outcome; however, little is known about whether psychology courses, especially ones such as research methods courses that might be expected to promote critical thinking skills, actually improve them. We compared the acquisition of critical thinking skills for analyzing psychological arguments in 3 groups of research methods students, 1 getting critical thinking skills infused directly into their course and 2 other groups getting no explicit critical thinking skills instruction. We found that the group receiving explicit critical thinking skills instruction showed significantly greater gains in their argument analysis skills than the groups receiving no explicit critical thinking instruction. These results support the effectiveness of explicitly teaching critical thinking skills infused directly into regular course instruction.

Attention biases decisions but does not alter appearance

Introduction: Whether attention intensifies the subjective perception of sensory attributes has been a topic of debate in experimental psychology for over one hundred years. Recently, some studies have shown that transient peripheral attentional cues can increase the perceived contrast and other attributes of stimuli. These studies have been interpreted as demonstrating a link between neural theories and the phenomenology of attention. In a previous study, we were unable to reproduce the effect of attention on perceived contrast except for very low contrasts, near the threshold of detection, and the characteristics of those effects suggested they were the result of sensory interactions between the cues and targets rather than attention. To further investigate the discrepancy, we decided to replicate published studies, using their exact superthreshold stimuli and procedures, and also to introduce different types of behavioral judgments. Methods: Two Gabor patch targets with separate contrasts were simultaneously and briefly presented. One was pre-cued by a transient small black dot. Fourteen subjects compared the contrasts of the two targets using three different types of perceptual judgments in separate sessions: 1. whether the two targets had the same or different contrast (equality judgment); 2. which target had the higher contrast (comparative judgment); 3. the comparative judgment plus determining the orientation of the target deemed to have the higher contrast. Results: The two comparative judgments showed significant increases in contrast of the cued target across the range of contrasts tested. However, the equality judgment showed no effect at any contrast. Conclusion: The equality judgment is not susceptible to the same type of biases as the comparative judgment. Since the attentional effects depend on the decision process, we must conclude that while attention may incite post-perceptual biases in the decision process, it does not prohibit the veridical perception of sensory attributes—attention does not deceive us.

Accounting for the hero: A critical psycho‐discursive approach to children's experience of domestic violence and the construction of masculinities

This article employs a critical psycho-discursive approach to social identity processes and subjectivity in an important and under-researched area; the psychological impact of domestic violence on children. We use a case study of interview interaction with two teenage brothers talking about their father's past violent behaviour to show that a highly idealised, dominant form of hegemonic masculinity--'heroic protection discourse' (HPD)--was a major organising principle framing both brothers' understandings of events. However, significant differences occurred in how each boy identified and made sense of self and others within this discourse. We discuss our findings in terms of (1) the destructive power of HPD to position sons as responsible for a father's violent behaviour and (2) the utility of our approach for developing a better understanding of when, if or why psychological and behavioural problems associated with domestic violence are likely to develop in a particular child. In so doing, we hope to contribute to theoretical debates in social psychology on identity and subjectivity by showing how it is possible to make sense of the 'collision' between structure and agency through the study of social interaction.

Conquering Stereotypes in Research on Race and Gender

In responding to Epstein’s essay “On Boundaries,” we argue that the stereotypes that Epstein identifies as an ongoing component of racism served as the foundation of sociological scholarship a mere century ago. Today, we argue, it is the continued use of the term stereotype that serves as our “car window” and can hold us back from truly understanding race and gender. The use of the term stereotype is not (nor has it ever been) a useful analytic tool because the term invokes a individualistic and psychological argument where a sociological mechanism might be more fruitfully employed.

Reexamining the Calculus of Voting

This study applies social cognitive theory to the study of voter turnout, examining the effects of self-efficacy on citizens' decisions of whether or not to vote. Consistent with recent arguments in cognitive psychology (Fenton-O'Creevy, Nicholson, Soane, & Willman, 2003, 2005), I argue that excessive perceptions of self-efficacy lead some citizens to overestimate their vote's impact in close elections and to vote as a consequence of these perceptions. This illusion of control is further engendered by the features of skill-based activities such as choice, personal involvement, stimulus familiarity, and exertion of effort (Langer, 1975) that are inherent in the act of voting. Employing both cross-sectional and panel data, I find that individuals with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to be moved to vote by perceptions that an election will be close than are citizens with low levels of self-efficacy.

The Importance of Distinguishing between the Theoretical Attitude and the Natural Scientific Attitude in the Discipline of Psychology

Edmund Husserl's critique of using the natural scientific method to investigate meaningful human experience remains relevant to recent debates in psychology. Discursive Psychology (DP) claims to draw upon phenomenological insights to critique quantitative psychology for studying theoretical concepts rather than the actual practices of the lived social world. In this paper, I will argue that DP overlooks the important distinction that can be made between the theoretical attitude and the natural scientific attitude in Husserlian Phenomenology and hence, once again, loses sight of the meaningfully constituted life-world. In doing so, I will demonstrate the continued relevance of Husserl's critique of natural science to the discipline of psychology.

Simulation, simplicity, and selection: an evolutionary perspective on high-level mindreading

In this paper, I argue that a natural selection-based perspective gives reasons for thinking that the core of the ability to mindread cognitively complex mental states is subserved by a simulationist process—that is, that it relies on non-specialised mechanisms in the attributer’s cognitive architecture whose primary function is the generation of her own decisions and inferences. In more detail, I try to establish three conclusions. First, I try to make clearer what the dispute between simulationist and non-simulationist theories of mindreading fundamentally is about. Second, I try to make more precise an argument that is sometimes hinted at in support of the former: this ‘argument from simplicity’ suggests that, since natural selection disfavours building extra cognitive systems where this can be avoided, simulationist theories of mindreading are more in line with natural selection than their competitors. As stated, though, this argument overlooks the fact that building extra cognitive systems can also yield benefits: in particular, it can allow for the parallel processing of multiple problems and it makes for the existence of backups for important elements of the organism’s mind. I therefore try to make this argument more precise by investigating whether these benefits also apply to the present case—and conclude negatively. My third aim in this paper is to use this discussion of mindreading as a means for exploring the promises and difficulties of evolutionary arguments in philosophy and psychology more generally.

On Genes, Brains, and Behavior: Why Should Developmental Psychologists Care About Brain Development?

Abstract— The past several decades have seen tremendous progress in understanding mammalian brain development. The models that have emerged suggest that this development is dynamic and, from the very beginning, involves the continuous interaction of genetic, organismic, and environmental factors. The central question posed in this article is whether these models of brain development should be of import to developmental psychologists. It is argued that the key debates in psychology are founded on assumptions that are integrally related to questions of biology and biological inheritance. The construct of innateness, in particular, is central to these debates, and the biological system most critically implicated in claims about innate behaviors is the brain. However, as this article attempts to show, the underlying assumptions of contemporary psychological models reflect largely outdated ideas about what it means for something to be innate. Contemporary models of brain development challenge the foundational constructs of the nature versus nurture formulation, emphasizing that the processes of brain development engage both inherited and environmental factors and rely upon their continuous interaction. These models also emphasize that the relationship between brain and behavioral development is one of interdependence and reciprocity: Behaviors influence brain development and the brain mediates all behavior. Thus, the key to understanding the origins and emergence of both the brain and behavior lies in understanding how genetic, organismic, and environmental factors are engaged in the dynamic and interactive processes that define development of the neurobehavioral system.

Dialectical pluralism: A theoretical conceptualization of pluralism in psychology

A theoretical conceptualization of pluralism in psychology called dialectical pluralism is proposed in this paper. It is argued that this approach provides an effective and efficient basis for scientific progress in psychology. Three primary components of dialectical pluralism are developed. First, drawing on Royce's constructive dialectics, it is contended that tension between competing theories should be sustained in the hope of producing evaluative or integrative solutions. Second, the unity–disunity debate in psychology is reframed as a continuum and it is argued that oscillating periods of convergent and divergent pluralism would provide a productive model for scientific progress. Finally, intercontextualism is discussed as the underlying philosophical foundation for dialectical pluralism. This alternative to both mainstream psychology's positivist–empiricist foundations, as well as competing positions that may be more contextualist in orientation, is expounded as the justification for this new conceptualization. In particular, the limits of a methodological unity based on positivist–empiricist foundations, as well as of a pragmatic pluralism based on contextualist foundations, are both addressed by intercontextualism. As a result, dialectical pluralism may provide a middle ground between these two distinctive factions within psychology, while alleviating the fragmentation of the discipline.

Why General Education? Peters, Hirst and History

Richard Peters argued for a general education based largely on the study of truth-seeking subjects for its own sake. His arguments have long been acknowledged as problematic. There are also difficulties with Paul Hirst's arguments for a liberal education, which in part overlap with Peters'. Where justification fails, can historical explanation illuminate? Peters was influenced by the prevailing idea that a secondary education should be based on traditional, largely knowledge-orientated subjects, pursued for intrinsic as well as practical ends. Does history reveal good reasons for this view? The view itself has roots going back to the 16th century and the educational tradition of radical Protestantism. Religious arguments to do with restoring the image of an omniscient God in man made good sense, within their own terms, of an encyclopaedic approach to education. As these faded in prominence after 1800, old curricular patterns persisted in the drive for ‘middle-class schools’, and new, less plausible justifications grew in salience. These were based first on faculty psychology and later on the psychology of individual differences. The essay relates the views of Peters and Hirst to these historical arguments, asking how far their writings show traces of the religious argument mentioned, and how their views on education and the development of mind relate to the psychological arguments.

Multiracial Self-Identification and Adolescent Outcomes: A Social Psychological Approach to the Marginal Man Theory

Recent public health research has consistently reported that self-identified multiracial adolescents tend to display more problem behaviors and psychological difficulties than monoracial adolescents. Relying on insights from qualitative analyses using small or clinical samples to interpret these empirical patterns, these studies implicitly assume a pejorative stance toward adolescents' multiracial self-identification. Building on the social psychological arguments underlying Park's and Stonequist's seminal discussions of the “marginal man,” we derive hypotheses indicating that self-identified multiracial adolescents may show more psychological difficulties, but are also likely to have more active social interaction and participation than monoracial groups. We also incorporate later elaborations of the marginal man theory to develop alternative hypotheses regarding multiracial youth's school and behavioral outcomes. Based on a nationally representative sample of racially self-identified youth, the results suggest that patterns of multiracial-monoracial differences are generally consistent with the hypotheses derived closely from the marginal man theory or its subsequent elaborations. We examine the heterogeneities within these general patterns across different multiracial categories and discuss the implications of these findings.

Uma visão panorâmica da psicologia científica de Wilhelm Wundt

Embora seja geralmente louvado nos manuais de historia da psicologia como fundador da psicologia cientifica, grande parte da obra de Wilhelm Wundt permanece desconhecida por parte dos psicologos contemporâneos, sobretudo no que diz respeito a relacao entre filosofia e seu pensamento psicologico. O presente artigo pretende apresentar uma visao geral dos pressupostos filosoficos envolvidos na fundamentacao do projeto wundtiano de uma psicologia cientifica. Apos uma breve contextualizacao geral de sua obra e a exposicao de alguns problemas de interpretacao na literatura contemporânea, sao enfatizadas as concepcoes de objeto e metodo da psicologia. Alem disso, sao apresentados dois principios fundamentais de seu projeto psicologico, a saber, o principio do paralelismo psicofisico e o principio da sintese criadora. Ao final, alguns mal-entendidos sao desfeitos, sugerindo a atualidade do pensamento de Wundt para os debates contemporâneos na psicologia.

Methodological Issues Related to the Use of P

This paper reviews methodological issues related to the use of P<0.05 in health behavior research and suggests how application and presentation of statistical significance may be improved. Assessment of sample size and P<0.05, the file drawer problem, the Law of Large Numbers and the statistical significance arguments in epidemiology, health behavior, and psychology were examined. The reporting of confidence intervals (CI), effect sizes (ES), and use of nonstatistical graphics can improve portrayal and understanding of findings. Health behavior literature has had some scholarly examination of how to improve analysis of findings but has not had an in-depth dialog on other concepts related to P<0.05. Attention to these concepts could improve clarity in how research outcomes are presented and thereby increase credibility of health behavior research.

When superior courts reach different conclusions in the same child sexual abuse cases—is there a lesson to be learned?

AbstractThe objective of this study was to analyse Swedish child sexual abuse cases from 1989 to 2004 characterised by the following: (1) conviction in first trial in a court of appeal; (2) the Supreme Court later accepted a petition for a new trial; and (3) acquittal in second trial in the same court of appeal (with new judges). The study was conducted to determine what criteria were used for evaluating psychological child‐related information and how they were applied. Eight argument themes were identified in the reasoning of the courts: (1) ability to perceive, remember, and communicate about experiences in a reliable way; (2) influence before first forensic interview; (3) influence during forensic interview/s; (4) motives for disclosing/retracting; (5) statement characteristics; (6) disclosure process; (7) behaviour and/or emotions related to investigations/interviews; and (8) psychological symptoms. The arguing of the courts was classified as belonging to one of three categories for each argument theme: (1) supporting/challenging the allegations; (2) opposing a conceivably supportive/challenging argument; and (3) indifferent. In six of the nine cases, arguments belonging to the same theme were presented in both court proceedings. Diametrically opposite conclusions were reached in 15 of 20 of these examples and same conclusion in one case. The evaluation method/s seemingly underlying the child psychological arguments of the courts may have a low reliability. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Modulation of the startle reflex by pleasant and unpleasant music

The issue of emotional feelings to music is the object of a classic debate in music psychology. Emotivists argue that emotions are really felt in response to music, whereas cognitivists believe that music is only representative of emotions. Psychophysiological recordings of emotional feelings to music might help to resolve the debate, but past studies have failed to show clear and consistent differences between musical excerpts of different emotional valence. Here, we compared the effects of pleasant and unpleasant musical excerpts on the startle eye blink reflex and associated body markers (such as the corrugator and zygomatic activity, skin conductance level and heart rate). The startle eye blink amplitude was larger and its latency was shorter during unpleasant compared with pleasant music, suggesting that the defensive emotional system was indeed modulated by music. Corrugator activity was also enhanced during unpleasant music, whereas skin conductance level was higher for pleasant excerpts. The startle reflex was the response that contributed the most in distinguishing pleasant and unpleasant music. Taken together, these results provide strong evidence that emotions were felt in response to music, supporting the emotivist stance.

Born that Way? Not a Choice?: Problems with Biological and Psychological Arguments for Gay Rights

Many people, especially legal and political advocates for gay rights, believe that it would be good for gay rights if sexual orientations were innate, inborn, or chosen. The central legal context for the born that way and not a choice arguments for gay rights is the immutability factor in equal protection jurisprudence. Although many in the legal academy have argued against the significance of immutability, recently two state supreme courts, as part of denying claims for the legal recognition of same-sex relationships, invoked immutability as a condition for heightened scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause and held that the gay plaintiffs had failed to satisfy this condition. This Article argues that there are serious problems with legal, ethical, and political arguments for gay rights that make use of scientific theories of how sexual orientations develop. On this basis and others, this Article concludes that advocates should avoid biological, psychological, and other scientific arguments for gay rights.

Multiple Pregnancy: a blessing or a curse?

Multiple pregnancy rates have increased phenomenally since the mid-1980s in many countries such as the US and UK. This increase is largely due to the use of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and the increase in maternal age at conception. Multiple pregnancies are associated with increased health risks for the mother; pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, peripartum haemorrhage, and for the infants: prematurity, low birth weights, cerebral palsy and developmental disorders. Not only are there health risks, but also financial, social, psychological and ethical implications. This article summarizes the medical, economic, social and psychological arguments against multiple births based on a review of the literature, as well as discussing some options on how to prevent multiple pregnancies in the future.

A critical review of the concept of equity to support water allocation at various scales in the Amu Darya basin

Even though ‘equity’ appears to be the major objective on all water management levels, the concept as such and its implication for water management are hardly explored within the professional water debate. Utilizing different arguments from the public sector, management and psychology debates, it is argued that the concept of equity is often undefined and usually ambiguous. The paper goes on to explore aspects of ‘equity’ of water allocation between the different riparian states in the Amu Darya basin and between the different upstream and downstream provinces in Uzbekistan and districts within the Khorezm Province of Uzbekistan.

Psychosocial Implications of Disfigurement and the Future of Human Face Transplantation

Although the first face transplants have been attempted, the social and psychological debates concerning the ethics and desirability of the procedure continue. Critics contend that these issues have not yet been sufficiently addressed. With this in mind, the present article seeks to elaborate on key psychological and social factors that will be central for addressing the ethical and psychosocial challenges necessary to move face transplantation into mainstream medicine. The goals of this article are to (1) discuss the psychosocial sequelae of facial disfiguration and how face transplantation may relieve those problems, and (2) delineate inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of research subjects for face transplantation. The article uses concepts from symbolic interaction theory in sociology to articulate a theoretically coherent scheme for comprehending the psychosocial difficulties of facial disfiguration and the advantages offered by facial transplantation. The authors conclude that the psychosocial implications of disfigurement warrant surgical intervention and that research in the area of face transplantation should continue.