Death In Hippocampal Slice Cultures Research Articles

Robust neuroprotective effects of 2-((2-oxopropanoyl)oxy)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoic acid (OPTBA), a HTB/pyruvate ester, in the postischemic rat brain.

Postischemic brain damage in stroke is proceded with complicated pathological events, and so multimodal drug treatments may offer better therapeutic means for improving clinical outcomes. Here, we report robust neuroprotective effects of a novel compound, 2-((2-oxopropanoyl)oxy)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoic acid (OPTBA), a 2-hydroxy-4-trifluoromethyl benzoic acid (HTB, a metabolite of triflusal)-pyruvate ester. Intravenous administration of OPTBA (5 mg/kg) 3 or 6 h after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in Sprague-Dawley rats reduced infarct volumes to 38.5 ± 11.4% and 46.5 ± 15.3%, respectively, of that of MCAO controls, and ameliorated motor impairment and neurological deficits. Importantly, neuroprotective effects of OPTBA were far greater than those afforded by combined treatment of HTB and pyruvate. Furthermore, OPTBA suppressed microglial activation and proinflammatory cytokine inductions more effectively than HTB/pyruvate co-treatment in the postischemic brain and LPS-treated cortical slice cultures and also attenuated NMDA-induced neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures. LC-MS analysis demonstrated that OPTBA was hydrolyzed to HTB and pyruvate with a t1/2 of 38.6 min in blood and 7.2 and 2.4 h in cortex and striatum, respectively, and HTB was maintained for more than 24 h both in blood and brain tissue. Together these results indicate OPTBA acts directly and via its hydrolysis products, thus acting as a multimodal neuroprotectant in the postischemic brain.

Involvement of TRPV4 channels in Aβ40-induced hippocampal cell death and astrocytic Ca2+ signalling

Previous studies suggested that amyloid β (Aβ)-induced disruption of astrocytic Ca2+ signalling and oxidative stress play a major role in the progression towards neuronal and glial death in Alzheimer's disease. We have recently demonstrated that Ca2+-permeable TRPV4 channels are highly expressed in rat hippocampal astrocytes and are involved in oxidative stress-induced cell damage. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that TRPV4 channels also contribute to hippocampal damage evoked by Aβ. Synthetic Aβ40 evoked cell death in hippocampal slice cultures in a concentration (0–20μM) and time (12–48h) dependent manner, after cultures were preconditioned with sublethal concentration of buthionine sulfoximine (1.5μM) which enhanced endogenous ROS production. As demonstrated by propidium iodide fluorescence, damage was observed in the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus and to a smaller degree in pyramidal neurons of the CA1–CA3 region, as well as in glia cells mainly at the edge of the slice. Immunocytochemistry revealed an altered pattern of TRPV4 and GFAP protein expression, and reactive astrogliosis surrounding pyramidal CA1–CA3 neurons. Neuronal and astrocytic damage was attenuated by the antioxidant Trolox, TRPV4 channel blockers Gd3+ and ruthenium red (RR), and a specific inhibitor of the redox and Ca2+-sensitive phospholipase A2 enzyme (MAFP). In disassociated co-cultures of hippocampal neurons and astrocytes without BSO preconditioning, Aβ40 evoked pronounced neuronal damage, enhanced the expression of TRPV4 and GFAP proteins (indicative of reactive astrogliosis), and increased intracellular free Ca2+ concentration in astrocytes. The latter effect was attenuated by RR and in Ca2+-free media. These data show that Aβ40 can activate astrocytic TRPV4 channels in the hippocampus, leading to neuronal and astrocytic damage in a Ca2+ and oxidative stress-dependent manner.

Pyruvate Prevents the Inhibition of the Long-term Potentiation Induced by Amyloid-β through Protein Phosphatase 2A Inactivation

Amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers are derived from proteolytic cleavage of amyloid-β protein precursor and can impair memory and hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in vivo and in vitro. They are recognized as the primary neurotoxic agents in Alzheimer's disease. Pyruvate has a protective effect against Aβ-induced neuronal cell death in hippocampal slice cultures. However, whether pyruvate also has a protective effect against the inhibition of neuronal plasticity induced by Aβ remains to be elucidated. This study examined the effect of pyruvate on the Aβ-induced inhibition of LTP in the rat hippocampus. We found that pyruvate prevented the Aβ-induced inhibition of LTP as strong as fostriecin, a specific protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) inhibitor. Pyruvate prevented the Aβ block of Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein kinase 2 (CaMK2) autophosphorylation and the Aβ-induced PP2A activation. Pyruvate, but not lactate, decreased reactive oxygen species levels in CA1 slices exposed to Aβ. We propose that pyruvate could prevent the Aβ-induced inhibition of LTP by the re-autophosphorylation of CaMK2 through PP2A inactivation. The reduction of reactive oxygen species production is considered to be the upstream mechanism of this observed pyruvate protection.

Effect of Low Mg2+ and Bicuculline on Cell Survival in Hippocampal Slice Cultures

ABSTRACTA reliable model system of epileptiform insult would facilitate investigation into the underlying biological mechanisms. Epileptiform insult was induced in hippocampal slice cultures by lowering extracellular Mg2+, (+)-bicuculline, or (−)-bicuculline methochloride, a stable salt form of bicuculline (both forms block GABAA receptors). Cell death was assessed by propidium iodide uptake. Low Mg2+ or (+)-bicuculline did not produce cell death regardless of dose or incubation period. Exposure to 100 μM (−)-bicuculline methochloride for 48 hr resulted in prominent CA1 cell death. These findings demonstrate that not all pro-epileptic drugs/ion changes used routinely for electrophysiological recording of seizure activity lead to cell death in hippocampal slice cultures and that treatment with bicuculline methochloride can be used as a reliable model for epileptiform insult.

Adult neural stem/progenitor cells reduce NMDA‐induced excitotoxicity via the novel neuroprotective peptide pentinin

Although the potential of adult neural stem cells to repair damage via cell replacement has been widely reported, the ability of endogenous stem cells to positively modulate damage is less well studied. We investigated whether medium conditioned by adult hippocampal stem/progenitor cells altered the extent of excitotoxic cell death in hippocampal slice cultures. Conditioned medium significantly reduced cell death following 24 h of exposure to 10 microM NMDA. Neuroprotection was greater in the dentate gyrus, a region neighboring the subgranular zone where stem/progenitor cells reside compared with pyramidal cells of the cornis ammonis. Using mass spectrometric analysis of the conditioned medium, we identified a pentameric peptide fragment that corresponded to residues 26-30 of the insulin B chain which we termed 'pentinin'. The peptide is a putative breakdown product of insulin, a constituent of the culture medium, and may be produced by insulin-degrading enzyme, an enzyme expressed by the stem/progenitor cells. In the presence of 100 pM of synthetic pentinin, the number of mature and immature neurons killed by NMDA-induced toxicity was significantly reduced in the dentate gyrus. These data suggest that progenitors in the subgranular zone may convert exogenous insulin into a peptide capable of protecting neighboring neurons from excitotoxic injury.

Effect of growth hormone on neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures of neonatal rats exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation

Purpose : To investigate whether growth hormone (GH) has a protective effect on neurons in hippocampal slice cultures of neonatal rats exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Methods : Cultured hippocampal slices of 7-day-old rats were exposed to OGD for 60 min. Then, the slices were immediately treated with three doses of GH (5, 50, or 500 µM) in media. The relative fluorescent densities of propidium iodide (PI) uptake in the slices and relative lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities in the media were determined and compared between each GH- treated group of slices and untreated slices (control) at 12 and 24 h after OGD. Immunofluorescent staining for caspase-3 and TUNEL staining were performed to observe the effect of GH on apoptotic neuronal death. Results : The relative fluorescent densities of PI uptake in CA1 and dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampal slices in each GH-treated group were not significantly different from those in the untreated slices at 12 and 24 h after OGD (P＞0.05). Treatment with GH could reduce the relative LDH activities in the media of the GH-treated groups only at 12 h after OGD (P＜0.05). Expression of caspase-3 and TUNEL positivity in CA1 and DG of the slices treated with 50-iM GH were not different from those of the untreated slices at 12 and 24 h after OGD. Conclusion : Treatment of hippocampal slice cultures with GH after OGD does not show a definitive protective effect on neuronal death but can reduce the LDH efflux of the slices in media at 12 h after OGD.

Interaction of mitochondrial respiratory inhibitors and excitotoxins potentiates cell death in hippocampal slice cultures

The broad-spectrum insecticide rotenone, an inhibitor of complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), gives rise to oxidative stress and bioenergetic failure. Pesticides including rotenone have been implicated in human neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Another intensively investigated hypothesis of neurodegenerative disease involves the toxic action of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. In the present study, we determined whether concomitant exposure of rotenone plus tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA) or the specific glutamate receptor agonists N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) or alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoleproprionic acid (AMPA) would cause greater cell death in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures than when given separately. Low, sublethal rotenone (100 nM), TEA (0.5-2.0 mM), NMDA (1.0-10 microM), and AMPA (1.0-10 microM) alone resulted in little cell death as determined by propidium iodide fluorescence. However, cell death was significantly to dramatically potentiated when the hippocampal slices were coincubated with comparable concentrations of rotenone plus TEA, NMDA, or AMPA. Similarly, in the presence of 10 microM NMDA, ETC inhibitors blocking other mitochondrial complexes also potentiated cell death. Immunohistochemical analysis using glial fibrillary acidic protein antibody determined that the cell death was preferentially neuronal. These results demonstrate that two different classes of toxicants can interact, resulting in potentiation of neurotoxicity, and further suggest that a combinatorial therapeutic approach may be required to ameliorate the potentiated cell death.

Vulnerability of glial cells to hydrogen peroxide in cultured hippocampal slices

Massive production of free radicals (FR) has been associated with a variety of pathological conditions in the central nervous system (CNS). We have used the FR generating compound hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2) in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures to model oxidative injury in the brain. Necrotic cell death was monitored for up to 48 h using propidium iodide (PI) and confocal microscopy. A 1 h exposure to H 2O 2 (0.5–2.5 mM) caused a dose-dependent, and region specific cell death in hippocampal slice cultures. Glial cells demonstrated a high degree of vulnerability to H 2O 2. During the initial 3 h post-injury period, regions of the slice where glial cell bodies predominated showed massive cell death. The majority of neurons in the pyramidal layers were spared, though at later time points they appeared damaged as well. Carboxy-dichlorofluorescein imaging revealed a corresponding early increase in ROS generation in glial cells compared to pyramidal neurons. Immunohistochemistry of PI labeled slices identified astrocytes as the cells most sensitive to H 2O 2 toxicity. In dissociated cell cultures of hippocampal astrocytes and neurons, astrocytes also exhibited a significantly higher sensitivity to H 2O 2 than neurons. Hydrogen peroxide-induced cytotoxicity in all regions of the hippocampal slice culture was significantly attenuated by pre-treatment with antioxidants (α-tocopherol and glutathione), and was not prevented by blockade of Ca 2+ influx, or NMDA channel activation. Cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition, reduced cytotoxicity in glial areas by more than 50%, while in the CA2–CA3 pyramidal layers a much smaller, but still significant, attenuation of cytotoxicity was observed. Our results suggest that mitochondria are primary targets of H 2O 2 toxicity, particularly in astrocytes.

Mild Hypothermia, but Not Propofol, Is Neuroprotective in Organotypic Hippocampal Cultures

The neuroprotective potency of anesthetics such as propofol compared to mild hypothermia remains undefined. Therefore, we determined whether propofol at two clinically relevant concentrations is as effective as mild hypothermia in preventing delayed neuron death in hippocampal slice cultures (HSC). Survival of neurons was assessed 2 and 3 days after 1 h oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) either at 37 degrees C (with or without 10 or 100 microM propofol) or at an average temperature of 35 degrees C during OGD (mild hypothermia). Cell death in CA1, CA3, and dentate neurons in each slice was measured with propidium iodide fluorescence. Mild hypothermia eliminated death in CA1, CA3, and dentate neurons but propofol protected dentate neurons only at a concentration of 10 microM; the more ischemia vulnerable CA1 and CA3 neurons were not protected by either 10 microM or 100 microM propofol. In slice cultures, the toxicity of 100 muM N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), 500 microM glutamate, and 20 microM alpha-amino-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) was not reduced by 100 microM propofol. Because propofol neuroprotection may involve gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated indirect inhibition of glutamate receptors (GluRs), the effects of propofol on GluR activity (calcium influx induced by GluR agonists) were studied in CA1 neurons in HSC, in isolated CA1 neurons, and in cortical brain slices. Propofol (100 and 200 microM, approximate burst suppression concentrations) decreased glutamate-mediated [Ca2+]i increases (Delta[Ca2+]i) responses by 25%-35% in isolated CA1 neurons and reduced glutamate and NMDA Delta[Ca2+]i in acute and cultured hippocampal slices by 35%-50%. In both CA1 neurons and cortical slices, blocking GABAA receptors with picrotoxin reduced the inhibition of GluRs substantially. We conclude that mild hypothermia, but not propofol, protects CA1 and CA3 neurons in hippocampal slice cultures subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation. Propofol was not neuroprotective at concentrations that reduce glutamate and NMDA receptor responses in cortical and hippocampal neurons.

Ionotropic glutamate receptors and glutamate transporters are involved in necrotic neuronal cell death induced by oxygen–glucose deprivation of hippocampal slice cultures

Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures represent a feasible model for studies of cerebral ischemia and the role of ionotropic glutamate receptors in oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced neurodegeneration. New results and a review of existing data are presented in the first part of this paper. The role of glutamate transporters, with special reference to recent results on inhibition of glutamate transporters under normal and energy-failure (ischemia-like) conditions is reviewed in the last part of the paper. The experimental work is based on hippocampal slice cultures derived from 7 day old rats and grown for about 3 weeks. In such cultures we investigated the subfield neuronal susceptibility to oxygen–glucose deprivation, the type of induced cell death and the involvement of ionotropic glutamate receptors. Hippocampal slice cultures were also used in our studies on glutamate transporters reviewed in the last part of this paper. Neurodegeneration was monitored and/or shown by cellular uptake of propidium iodide, loss of immunocytochemical staining for microtubule-associated protein 2 and staining with Fluoro-Jade B. To distinguish between necrotic vs. apoptotic neuronal cell death we used immunocytochemical staining for active caspase-3 (apoptosis indicator) and Hoechst 33342 staining of nuclear chromatin. Our experimental studies on oxygen–glucose deprivation confirmed that CA1 pyramidal cells were the most susceptible to this ischemia-like condition. Judged by propidium iodide uptake, a selective CA1 lesion, with only minor affection on CA3, occurred in cultures exposed to oxygen–glucose deprivation for 30 min. Nuclear chromatin staining by Hoechst 33342 and staining for active caspase-3 showed that oxygen–glucose deprivation induced necrotic cell death only. Addition of 10μM of the N-methyl- d-aspartate glutamate receptor antagonist MK-801, and 20μM of the non- N-methyl- d-aspartate glutamate receptor antagonist 2,3-dihyroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo( F)quinoxaline to the culture medium confirmed that both N-methyl- d-aspartate and non- N-methyl- d-aspartate ionotropic glutamate receptors were involved in the oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced cell death. Glutamate is normally quickly removed, from the extracellular space by sodium-dependent glutamate transporters. Effects of blocking the transporters by addition of the dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate are reviewed in the last part of the paper. Under normal conditions addition of dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate in concentrations of 25μM or more to otherwise untreated hippocampal slice cultures induced neuronal cell death, which was prevented by addition of 2,3-dihyroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo( F)quinoxaline and MK-801. In energy failure situations, like cerebral ischemia and oxygen–glucose deprivation, the transporters are believed to reverse and release glutamate to the extracellular space. Blockade of the transporters by a subtoxic (10μM) dose of dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate during oxygen–glucose deprivation (but not during the next 48 h after oxygen–glucose deprivation) significantly reduced the oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced propidium iodide uptake, suggesting a neuroprotective inhibition of reverse transporter activity by dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate during oxygen–glucose deprivation under these conditions. Adding to this, other results from our laboratory have demonstrated that pre-treatment of the slice cultures with glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor upregulates glutamate transporters. As a logical, but in some glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor therapy-related conditions clearly unwanted consequence the susceptibility for oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced glutamate receptor-mediated cell death is increased after glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor treatment. In summary, we conclude that both ionotropic glutamate receptors and glutamate transporters are involved in oxygen–glucose deprivation-induced necrotic cell death in hippocampal slice cultures, which have proven to be a feasible tool in experimental studies on this topic.

Activation of the neuroprotective ERK signaling pathway by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate during hypoxia involves intracellular Ca 2+ and phospholipase C

The mechanism of the neuroprotective action of the glycolytic pathway intermediate fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) may involve activation of a phospholipase-C (PLC) dependent MAP kinase signaling pathway. In this study, we determined whether FBP’s capacity to decrease delayed cell death in hippocampal slice cultures is dependent on PLC signaling or activation of the intracellular Ca 2+–MEK/ERK neuroprotective signaling cascade. FBP (3.5 mM) reduced delayed death from oxygen/glucose deprivation in CA1, CA3 and dentate neurons in slice cultures. The phospholipase-C inhibitor U73122 and the MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126 prevented this protection. In hippocampal and cortical neurons, FBP increased phospho-ERK1/2 (p42/44) immunostaining during hypoxic, but not normoxic conditions. Increased phospho-ERK immunostaining was dependent on PLC and also on MEK 1/2, an upstream regulator of ERK. Further, we found that FBP enhancement of phospho-ERK immunostaining depended on [Ca 2+] i: PLC inhibition and the IP 3 receptor blocker xestospongin C prevented FBP from increasing [Ca 2+] i and increasing phospho-ERK levels. However, while FBP-induced increases in [Ca 2+] i were blocked by xestospongin and a PLC inhibitor, [Ca 2+] i increases induced by the neuroprotective growth factor BDNF were not prevented. We conclude that during hypoxia FBP initiates a series of neuroprotective signals which include PLC activation, small increases in [Ca 2+] i, and increased activity of the MEK/ERK signaling pathway.

Rapid NMDA-induced neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures: Disparity of cell swelling and cell death

Rapid NMDA-induced neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures: Disparity of cell swelling and cell death

1209 Rapid NMDA-induced neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures: Disparity of cell swelling and cell death

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of short-wavelength blue light (SWBL) on cultured human lens epithelial cells (hLECs). The pathogenesis of cataracts after SWBL exposure is discussed.HLE-B3 hLECs were randomly divided into 3 groups: the NC group, which was grown in a dark incubator; the acetyl (Ac)-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-chloromethyl ketone (AC-YVAD-CMK) treatment group; and the SWBL exposure group. After SWBL (2500 lux) irradiation (for 8, 16, 24, and 32 h), caspase-1 and gasdermin D (GSDMD) expression levels in HLE-B3 hLECs were examined using ELISA, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blotting analyses. Double-positive staining of hLECs for activated and inhibited caspase-1 was used to determine pyroptosis in HLE-B3 hLECs.SWBL led to hLEC death, but a caspase-1 inhibitor suppressed cell death. The flow cytometry results also confirmed the dose-dependent effect of SWBL irradiation on the pyroptotic death of hLECs. Caspase-1 and GSDMD expression levels in all hLEC groups changed with blue light exposure times (8, 16, 24, and 32 h) and were higher in the AC-YVAD-CMK and SWBL exposure groups than in the NC group. The immunofluorescence results revealed higher GSDMD-N expression in the cell membrane of both the AC-YVAD-CMK and SWBL exposure groups than in the NC group.Based on the data, SWBL induces pyroptotic programmed cell death by activating the GSDMD signalling axis in HLE-B3 hLECs. These results provide new insights into the exploitation of new candidates for the prevention of cataracts.

Dual mode of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced neuronal death in hippocampal slice cultures in relation to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor properties.

Hippocampal slices prepared from neonatal rats were cultured for several weeks, and excitotoxicity induced in CA1 pyramidal neurons by N-methyl-D-aspartate was evaluated at different culture stages. CA1 neurons cultured for one week exhibited cell death predominantly within 1-3 h after a 15-min N-methyl-D-aspartate insult (early death), whereas those cultured for three weeks showed cell death mainly a few hours to 24 h after the insult (delayed death). CA1 neurons cultured for two weeks were in a transitional state, expressing only weak early and delayed forms of cell death in response to N-methyl-D-aspartate. The N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced early cell death observed in the one-week group depended on external Cl- but did not require external Ca2+; rather, early cell death was enhanced in Ca2+-free solution. This early cell death was accompanied by cell swelling, but cell swelling alone produced by osmotic changes failed to induce cell death. There was no evidence that CA1 neurons in the one-week group were more responsive to N-methyl-D-aspartate than those in the two other groups. Delayed cell death examined in the three-week group depended on external Ca2+ but was independent of Cl-. The density of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced whole-cell currents recorded from CA1 neurons in Mg2+-free solution remained unchanged during three weeks of culture. However, the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor channel in the three-week group was more resistant to Mg2+ block than that in the one- or two-week group. The incidence of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced delayed cell death was higher in the three-week group than in the two-week group in normal solution but not in Mg2+-free solution. Thus, Mg2+ block-resistant properties of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor channel acquired during prolonged culture may account for the high incidence of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced delayed cell death in the three-week group. However, the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits expressed in the CA1 subfield did not show any feature specific to the three-week group. These results show that two mechanistically distinct modes of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced neuronal death are manifested differentially at different culture stages, depending on the intrinsic neuron properties (i.e. early cell death) and on the properties or the responsiveness of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (i.e. delayed cell death).

Spontaneous and evoked glutamate signalling influences Fos-lacZ expression and pyramidal cell death in hippocampal slice cultures from transgenic rats.

Previously, we established that a spatially and temporally predictable pattern of spontaneous cell death occurs in pyramidal hippocampal neurons maintained in organotypic slice cultures. We have begun to examine the signalling events that may be relevant to this process by analyzing the expression of cellular immediate-early genes (cIEGs). In the present studies, organotypic hippocampal cultures were generated from transgenic rats that carry a fos-lacZ fusion gene. beta-Galactosidase activity in these rats accurately recapitulates Fos expression. An association was observed between cell death, as determined by propidium iodide (PI) staining, and Fos-lacZ expression. There was a consistent rise in beta-galactosidase activity in vulnerable regions 1-2 days before the peak of spontaneous neuronal death. Long-term treatment with TTX, CNQX, or D,L-APV inhibited the spontaneous neuronal death as well as Fos-lacZ expression. Furthermore, Fos-lacZ induction and cell death could be evoked by removal of these receptor antagonists or by application of the excitotoxin, kainic acid. The association between cIEG expression and cell death, shown here and by others, suggests that these genes contribute to regulatory events involved with cell death and/or protection.