Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte Immune Response Research Articles

Double-Stranded RNA to Mimic Viral Infection for Cancer Immunotherapy.

The presence of moieties denoting viral infection is crucial to mount powerful cytotoxic T-cell immune responses acting through innate receptors such as Toll-like receptor 3. For cancer immunotherapy, several safe analogues of viral double-stranded RNA are under clinical development following compelling evidence for efficacy in mouse models. See related article by van Eijck et al., p. 3447.

Paraneoplastic Neurologic Disorders.

This article reviews the clinical presentations, neural antibody associations, and oncologic accompaniments of paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes and neurologic autoimmunity in the context of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) cancer immunotherapy. Neural antibody discovery has improved the diagnosis of paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes. Neural antibodies also delineate the underlying disease pathophysiology and thus inform outcomes and treatments. Neural antibodies specific for extracellular proteins have pathogenic potential, whereas antibodies specific for intracellular targets are biomarkers of a cytotoxic T-cell immune response. A recent update in paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome criteria suggests high- and intermediate-risk phenotypes as well as neural antibodies to improve diagnostic accuracy in patients with paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes; a score was created based on this categorization. The introduction of ICI cancer immunotherapy has led to an increase in cancer-related neurologic autoimmunity with distinct clinical phenotypes. Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes reflect an ongoing immunologic response to cancer mediated by effector T cells or antibodies. Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes can present with manifestations at any level of the neuraxis, and neural antibodies aid diagnosis, focus cancer screening, and inform prognosis and therapy. In patients with high clinical suspicion of a paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome, cancer screening and treatment should be undertaken, regardless of the presence of a neural antibody. ICI therapy has led to immune-mediated neurologic complications. Recognition and treatment lead to improved outcomes.

Liposome-based in situ antigen-modification strategy for "universal" T-cell-receptor engineered T cell in cancer immunotherapy.

T-cell receptor (TCR) engineered T-cell therapy, unlike chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, relies on the inherent ability of TCRs to detect a wider variety of antigenic epitopes, such as protein fragments found internally or externally on cells. Hence, TCR-T-cell therapy offers broader possibilities for treating solid tumors. However, because of the complicated process of identifying specific antigenic peptides, their clinical application still encounters significant challenges. Thus, we aimed to establish a novel "universal" TCR-T "artificial antigen expression" technique that involves the delivery of the antigen to tumor cells using DSPE-PEG-NY-ESO-1157-165 liposomes (NY-ESO-1 Lips) to express TCR-T-cell-specific recognition targets. In vitro as well as in vivo studies revealed that they could accumulate efficiently in the tumor area and deliver target antigens to activate the tumor-specific cytotoxic T-cell immune response. NY-ESO-1 TCR-T therapy, when used in combination, dramatically curbed tumor progression and extended the longevity of mice. Additionally, PD-1 blockage enhanced the therapeutic effect of the aforementioned therapy. In conclusion, NY-ESO-1 Lips "cursed" tumor cells by enabling antigenic target expression on their surface. This innovative technique presents a groundbreaking approach for the widespread utilization of TCR-T in solid tumor treatment.

A mathematical model for HIV dynamics with multiple infections: implications for immune escape.

Multiple infections enable the recombination of different strains, which may contribute to viral diversity. How multiple infections affect the competition dynamics between the two types of strains, the wild and the immune escape mutant, remains poorly understood. This study develops a novel mathematical model that includes the two strains, two modes of viral infection, and multiple infections. For the representative double-infection case, the reproductive numbers are derived and global stabilities of equilibria are obtained via the Lyapunov direct method and theory of limiting systems. Numerical simulations indicate similar viral dynamics regardless of multiplicities of infections though the competition between the two strains would be the fiercest in the case of quadruple infections. Through sensitivity analysis, we evaluate the effect of parameters on the set-point viral loads in the presence and absence of multiple infections. The model with multiple infections predict that there exists a threshold for cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) to minimize the overall viral load. Weak or strong CTLs immune response can result in high overall viral load. If the strength of CTLs maintains at an intermediate level, the fitness cost of the mutant is likely to have a significant impact on the evolutionary dynamics of mutant viruses. We further investigate how multiple infections alter the viral dynamics during the combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). The results show that viral loads may be underestimated during cART if multiple-infection is not taken into account.

Mathematical analysis of stability and Hopf bifurcation in a delayed HIV infection model with saturated immune response

This paper explores the dynamics analysis of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) model with saturated cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) immune response and Beddington–DeAngelis infection rate. There are two time delays in the model to describe the time needed for infection of cell and CTL immune response generation, respectively. We obtain two thresholds and three possible equilibria from the model. By analyzing the corresponding characteristic equations, we study the stabilities of equilibrium and the effect of delays on CTL immune response. The results indicate that when immune delay is present, the steady state of equilibrium is disrupted and leads to a Hopf bifurcation. Finally, we use sensitivity analyses to show the effect of parameters on thresholds and numerical simulations to illustrate the theoretical results.

Co-infection dynamics between HIV-HTLV-I disease with the effects of Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, saturated incidence rate and study of optimal control

The spreading of HIV or HTLV-I among the cells has received the great attention in recent modelling study to explore the virus infection dynamics. The co-infection of HIV and HTLV-I with the effect of Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) immune response is also important from epidemiological point of view. To identify the co-infection scenario of HIV and HTLV-I with the CTLs effect we proposed in this paper a six compartmental ODE-model with uninfected, HIV-infected, HTLV-I infected CD4+T cells and free HIV virus particles with HIV specific CTLs and HTLV-I specific CTLs. The rates of infection of the cases are considered here saturated type and proliferation rate of uninfected and HIV infected CD4+ T-cells are of logistic terms. To establish the well-posedness of the model we have shown that the solution of the proposed model is non-negative and bounded. We obtain the basic reproduction number which is the maximum of the HIV-related reproduction and the HTLV-I related reproduction number. Along with the disease free equilibrium point the system contains other seven endemic equilibrium points containing infection by single disease or both. Analytically, we establish the local and global stability conditions of the equilibrium points and also we establish that the system experiences transcritical bifurcation by the generation of only HIV or HTLV-I infected endemic equilibrium point. Using numerical simulations, we validate the theoretical results and found two infection paths, one initiating with HIV and other with HTLV-I, both cases ultimately become co-infected. Finally, using the optimal control analysis we found the optimal policy for treatment using AVR, RTI & PI for HIV or AZT for HTLV-I control and lastly concluded by some recommendations.

Microfluidic-based preparation of artificial antigen-presenting gel droplets for integrated and minimalistic adoptive cell therapy strategies

Adoptive T-cell transfer for cancer therapy is limited by the inefficiency of in vitro T-cell expansion and the ability of in vivo T-cells to infiltrate tumors. The construction of multifunctional artificial antigen-presenting cells is a promising but challenging approach to achieve this goal. In this study, a multifunctional artificial antigen-presenting gel droplet (AAPGD) was designed. Its surface provides regulated T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation and co-stimulation signals and is capable of slow release of mitogenic cytokines and collagen mimetic peptide. The highly uniform AAPGD are generated by a facile method based on standard droplet microfluidic devices. The results of the study indicate that, T-cell proliferated in vitro utilizing AAPGD have a fast rate and high activity. AAPGD increased the proportion of in vitro proliferating T cells low differentiation and specificity. The starting number of AAPGDs and the quality ratio of TCR-stimulated and co-stimulated signals on the surface have a large impact on the rapid proliferation of low-differentiated T cells in vitro. During reinfusion therapy, AAPGD also enhanced T-cell infiltration into the tumor site. In experiments using AAPGD for adoptive T cell therapy in melanoma mice, tumor growth was inhibited, eliciting a potent cytotoxic T-lymphocyte immune response and improving mouse survival. In conclusion, AAPGD promotes rapid low-differentiation proliferation of T cells in vitro and enhances T cell infiltration of tumors in vivo. It simplifies the preparation steps of adoptive cell therapy, improves the therapeutic effect, and provides a new pathway for overdosing T cells to treat solid tumors.

Global stability of secondary DENV infection models with non-specific and strain-specific CTLs

Dengue virus (DENV) is a highly perilous virus that is transmitted to humans through mosquito bites and causes dengue fever. Consequently, extensive efforts are being made to develop effective treatments and vaccines. Mathematical modeling plays a significant role in comprehending the dynamics of DENV within a host in the presence of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) immune response. This study examines two models for secondary DENV infections that elucidate the dynamics of DENV under the influence of two types of CTL responses, namely non-specific and strain-specific responses. The first model encompasses five compartments, which consist of uninfected monocytes, infected monocytes, free DENV particles, non-specific CTLs, and strain-specific CTLs. In the second model, latently infected cells are introduced into the model. We posit that the CTL responsiveness is determined by a combination of self-regulating CTL response and a predator-prey-like CTL response. The model's solutions are verified to be nonnegativity and bounded and the model possesses two equilibrium states: the uninfected equilibrium EQ0 and the infected equilibrium EQ⁎. Furthermore, we calculate the basic reproduction number R0, which determines the existence and stability of the model's equilibria. We examine the global stability by constructing suitable Lyapunov functions. Our analysis reveals that if R0≤1, then EQ0 is globally asymptotically stable (G.A.S), and if R0>1, then EQ0 is unstable while EQ⁎ is G.A.S. To illustrate our findings analytically, we conduct numerical simulations for each model. Additionally, we perform sensitivity analysis to demonstrate how the parameter values of the proposed model impact R0 given a set of data. Finally, we discuss the implications of including the CTL immune response and latently infected cells in the secondary DENV infection model. Our study demonstrates that incorporating the CTL immune response and latently infected cells diminishes R0 and enhances the system's stability around EQ0.

Stability and optimal control of a cytokine-enhanced general HIV infection model with antibody immune response and CTLs immune response

In this article, a cytokine-enhanced viral infection model with cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) immune response and antibody immune response is proposed and analyzed. The model contains six compartments: uninfected CD4+T cells, infected CD4+T cells, inflammatory cytokines, viruses, CTLs and antibodies. Different from the previous works, this model not only considers virus-to-cell transmission and cell-to-cell transmission, but also includes a new infection mode, namely cytokine-enhanced viral infection. The incidence rates of the healthy CD4+T cells with viruses, infected cells and inflammatory cytokines are given by general functions. Moreover, the production/proliferation and removal/death rates of all compartments are represented by general functions. Firstly, we prove that all the solutions of the model are nonnegative and uniformly bounded. Then, five key parameters with strong biological significance, namely the virus basic reproduction number R 0, CTLs immune response reproduction number R 1, antibody immune response reproductive number R 2, CTLs immune competitive reproductive number R 3 and antibody immune competitive reproductive number R 4 are derived. Then, by using Lyapunov’s method and LaSalle’s invariance principle, we have shown the global stability of each equilibrium. In addition, the numerical simulation results also show that the theoretical results are correct. Finally, we formulate an optimal control problem and solve it using Pontryagins Maximum Principle and an efficient iterative numerical methods. The results of our numerical simulation show that it is very important to control the infection between viruses and cells and between cells and inflammatory cytokines for controlling HIV.

Dynamic analysis of a latent HIV infection model with CTL immune and antibody responses

This paper develops a mathematical model to investigate the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection dynamics. The model includes two transmission modes (cell-to-cell and cell-free), two adaptive immune responses (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) and antibody), a saturated CTL immune response, and latent HIV infection. The existence and local stability of equilibria are fully characterized by four reproduction numbers. Through sensitivity analyses, we assess the partial rank correlation coefficients of these reproduction numbers and identify that the infection rate via cell-to-cell transmission, the number of new viruses produced by each infected cell during its life cycle, the clearance rate of free virions, and immune parameters have the greatest impact on the reproduction numbers. Additionally, we compare the effects of immune stimulation and cell-to-cell spread on the model’s dynamics. The findings highlight the significance of adaptive immune responses in increasing the population of uninfected cells and reducing the numbers of latent cells, infected cells, and viruses. Furthermore, cell-to-cell transmission is identified as a facilitator of HIV transmission. The analytical and numerical results presented in this study contribute to a better understanding of HIV dynamics and can potentially aid in improving HIV management strategies.

Laponite Lights Calcium Flickers by Reprogramming Lysosomes to Steer DC Migration for An Effective Antiviral CD8+ T-Cell Response.

Immunotherapy using dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccination is an established approach for treating cancer and infectious diseases; however, its efficacy is limited. Therefore, targeting the restricted migratory capacity of the DCs may enhance their therapeutic efficacy. In this study, the effect of laponite (Lap) on DCs, which can be internalized into lysosomes and induce cytoskeletal reorganization via the lysosomal reprogramming-calcium flicker axis, is evaluated, and it is found that Lap dramatically improves the in vivo homing ability of these DCs to lymphoid tissues. In addition, Lap improves antigen cross-presentation by DCs and increases DC-T-cell synapse formation, resulting in enhanced antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell activation. Furthermore, a Lap-modified cocktail (Lap@cytokine cocktail [C-C]) is constructed based on the gold standard, C-C, as an adjuvant for DC vaccines. Lap@C-C-adjuvanted DCs initiated a robust cytotoxic T-cell immune response against hepatitis B infection, resulting in > 99.6% clearance of viral DNA and successful hepatitis B surface antigen seroconversion. These findings highlight the potential value of Lap as a DC vaccine adjuvant that can regulate DC homing, and provide a basis for the development of effective DC vaccines.

Chemotaxis-driven stationary and oscillatory patterns in a diffusive HIV-1 model with CTL immune response and general sensitivity.

In this paper, a reaction-diffusion-chemotaxis HIV-1 model with a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) immune response and general sensitivity is investigated. We first prove the global classical solvability and L∞-boundedness for the considered model in a bounded domain with arbitrary spatial dimensions, which extends the previous existing results. Then, we apply the global existence result to the case with a linear proliferation immune response and an incidence rate. We study the spatiotemporal dynamics about the three types of spatially homogeneous steady states: infection-free steady state S0, CTL-inactivated infection steady state S1, and CTL-activated infection steady state S∗. Our analyses indicate that S0 is globally asymptotically stable if the basic reproduction number R0 is less than 1; if R0 is between 1 and a threshold, then S1 is globally asymptotically stable. However, if R0 is larger than the threshold, then the chemoattraction and chemorepulsion can destabilize S∗, and thus, a spatiotemporal pattern forms as the chemotactic sensitivity crosses certain critical values. We obtain two kinds of important patterns, which are induced by chemotaxis: stationary Turing pattern and irregular oscillatory pattern. We also find that different chemotactic response functions can affect system's dynamics. Based on some empirical parameter values, numerical simulations are given to illustrate the effectiveness of the theoretical predications.

Avasimibe can cooperate with a DC-targeting and integration-deficient lentivector to induce stronger HBV specific T cytotoxic response by regulating cholesterol metabolism

We have reported a lentivector which could effectively induce HBV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Avasimibe is an inhibitor of acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase-1 (ACAT1), and has been shown to enhance T lymphocyte cytotoxicity on tumor cells. However, the role of avasimibe in lentivector-induced HBV-specific T cytotoxic response remains unknown. Based on previous study, we constructed an integration-deficient lentivector LVDC-ID-HBV (harboring HBcAg expression), and the in vitro experiments showed that the combination of avasimibe exhibited better efficacy in inducing HBV-specific CTL responses including cell proliferation, production of cytokines, as well as CTL killing activities. Mechanism experiments showed that increasing cell membrane cholesterol levels by MβCD-coated cholesterol or ACAT1 inhibition efficiently promoted TCR clustering, signaling transduction and immunological synapse formation, thereby mediating augmented CTL responses. Nevertheless, the depletion of plasma membrane cholesterol with MβCD led to obviously decreased CTL responses. The avasimibe-mediated strengthened immune effects were also determined in animal experiments and the results were in agreement with those from the in vitro research. In particular, the in vivo CTL killing activities were identified by the CFSE or BV-labeled splenocyte lysis assay. Moreover, the experiments in HBV transgenic mice showed that the LVDC-ID-HBV plus avasimibe group demonstrated the lowest serum HBsAg and HBV DNA levels, as well as the lowest expression of HBsAg and HBcAg in liver tissues. We concluded that the HBV-specific CTL immune responses could be potentiated by avasimibe through regulating plasma membrane cholesterol levels. Avasimibe may be a potential adjuvant for lentivector vaccine against HBV infection.

Antigenicity and adjuvanticity co-reinforced personalized cell vaccines based on self-adjuvanted hydrogel for post-surgical cancer vaccination

Cancer vaccine-based postsurgical immunotherapy is emerging as a promising approach in patients following surgical resection for inhibition of tumor recurrence. However, low immunogenicity and insufficient cancer antigens limit the widespread application of postoperative cancer vaccines. Here, we propose a “trash to treasure” cancer vaccine strategy to enhance postsurgical personalized immunotherapy, in which antigenicity and adjuvanticity of purified surgically exfoliated autologous tumors (with whole antigen repertoire) were co-reinforced. In the antigenicity and adjuvanticity co-reinforced personalized vaccine (Angel-Vax), polyriboinosinic: polyribocytidylic acid (pIC) and tumor cells that have undergone immunogenic death are encapsulated in a self-adjuvanted hydrogel formed by cross-linking of mannan and polyethyleneimine. Angel-Vax exhibits an enhanced capacity on antigen-presenting cells stimulation and maturation compared to its individual components in vitro. Immunization with Angel-Vax provokes an efficient systemic cytotoxic T-cell immune response, contributing to the satisfied prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy in mice. Furthermore, when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), Angel-Vax effectively prevented postsurgical tumor recurrence, as evidenced by an increase in median survival of approximately 35% compared with ICI alone. Unlike the cumbersome preparation process of postoperative cancer vaccines, the simple and feasible approach herein may represent a general strategy for various kinds of tumor cell-based antigens in the inhibition of postsurgical tumor relapse by reinforced immunogenicity.

Global dynamics analysis for a nonlinear HTLV-I model with logistic proliferation and CTL response

It is beyond dispute that cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) exert a vital function in the host’s antiviral defense mechanism. With the idea of the above factor and the logistic proliferation of CD4[Formula: see text] T-cells, we establish a HTLV-I (human T-cell leukemia virus type-I) mathematical model. First, two threshold parameters [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] (the basic reproduction numbers for viral infection and CTL immune response, respectively) are obtained. Second, sufficient criteria for local and global asymptotic stabilities of the feasible equilibria of the model are deduced, respectively. Third, the sensitivity analyses of [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] are performed to better understand the effective strategies for HTLV-I infection. Finally, not only numerical simulations are given to illustrate the stability conclusions, but also the biological significance is stated.

Spleen-selective co-delivery of mRNA and TLR4 agonist-loaded LNPs for synergistic immunostimulation and Th1 immune responses

Spleen is an ideal site for initiating and amplifying antigen-specific immune response. However, spleen-selective antigen delivery has limited tumor therapeutic efficacy owing to an inadequate cytotoxic T-cell immune response. In this study, we designed a spleen-selective mRNA vaccine that delivered unmodified mRNA and Toll-like Receptor (TLR) agonists to the spleen after systemic administration, resulting in a sufficient and persistent antitumor cellular immune response with potent tumor immunotherapeutic efficacy. To establish potent tumor vaccines (sLNPs-OVA/MPLA), we co-loaded stearic acid doped lipid nanoparticles with ovalbumin (OVA)-coding mRNA and TLR4 agonists (MPLA). We found that sLNPs-OVA/MPLA facilitated tissue-specific mRNA expression in the spleen after intravenous injection and elicited enhanced adjuvant activity with Th1 immune responses by activating multiple TLRs. In a prophylactic mouse model, sLNPs-OVA/MPLA induced a potent antigen-specific cytotoxic T cell immune response and ultimately prevented the growth of EG.7-OVA tumors with persistent immune memory protection. In addition, sLNPs-OVA/MPLA effectively delayed the tumor growth of EG.7-OVA subcutaneously transplanted lymphoma and lung metastasis formation of B16F10-OVA intravenously injected melanoma. This study showed that the co-delivery of mRNA antigens and appropriate TLR agonists could significantly improve the antitumor immunotherapeutic efficacy of spleen-targeted mRNA vaccines via synergistic immunostimulation and Th1 immune responses.

Exosomes from Ub‑HBcAg‑overexpressing dendritic cells induce T‑lymphocyte differentiation and enhance cytotoxic T‑lymphocyte activity.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major public health concern. The clearance of HBV may involve cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activity and T helper type 1 reactions. Exosomes generated from dendritic cells (DCs) can induce immunological responses capable of eradicating viruses. However, exosomes loaded with antigens have not yet demonstrated therapeutic potential in HBV infection. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the antiviral effects of DC-derived exosomes (Dexs) loaded with ubiquitinated HBV core antigen (Dexs-Ub-HBcAg). Murine bone marrow-derived DCs were loaded with a recombinant lentivector encoding the ubiquitinated form of HBcAg. High-purity Dexs were generated using differential velocity centrifugation. Splenic T-lymphocytes were stimulated with Dexs-Ub-HBcAg and the specific T-cell-mediated immune responses were examined. Cytokine expression was analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. T-lymphocyte proliferation was detected using a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay and HBcAg-specific CTL activity was determined using a lactate dehydrogenase release assay. The results revealed that Dexs-Ub-HBcAg effectively stimulated T-cell proliferation and induced the activation of antigen-specific CTLs to exhibit HBcAg-specific CTL immune responses in vitro. These results suggest the potential of Dexs-Ub-HBcAg for development as a future therapeutic option for the elimination of HBV.

Global Stability of a MERS-CoV Infection Model with CTL Immune Response and Intracellular Delay

In this paper, we propose and study a Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection model with cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) immune response and intracellular delay. This model includes five compartments: uninfected cells, infected cells, viruses, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), and CTL immune cells. We obtained an immunity-inactivated reproduction number R0 and an immunity-activated reproduction number R1. By analyzing the distributions of roots of the corresponding characteristic equations, the local stability results of the infection-free equilibrium, the immunity-inactivated equilibrium, and the immunity-activated equilibrium were obtained. Moreover, by constructing suitable Lyapunov functionals and combining LaSalle’s invariance principle and Barbalat’s lemma, some sufficient conditions for the global stability of the three types of equilibria were obtained. It was found that the infection-free equilibrium is globally asymptotically stable if R0≤1 and unstable if R0>1; the immunity-inactivated equilibrium is locally asymptotically stable if R0>1>R1 and globally asymptotically stable if R0>1>R1 and condition (H1) holds, but unstable if R1>1; and the immunity-activated equilibrium is locally asymptotically stable if R1>1 and is globally asymptotically stable if R1>1 and condition (H1) holds.

Stability and Hopf Bifurcation Analysis of an HIV Infection Model in the Evolution of Drug Resistance

In the course of reverse transcription, drug-sensitive strain can mutate to a drug-resistant one. Cell-to-cell transmission is proved to be more efficient than virus-to-cell infection. The population of Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTLs) can be divided into CTL precursors and CTL effectors. Naive CTL precursors are those that never have contacted antigen, circulating around the body. Once the host is infected, CTL precursors (CTLp) begin to proliferate and differentiate into CTL effectors (CTLe), which have antiviral activity. In this paper, we study an HIV model with drug-sensitive and drug-resistant mixed strains, CTLp and CTLe, both viral and cellular infections. The basic reproduction ratios for each strain are derived and the stability of each feasible equilibrium is analyzed by using Routh–Hurwitz criteria. The periodic solutions may occur near the equilibrium with CTL immune response via Hopf bifurcation. By using normal form theory, we find more information about the limit cycles, such as the amplitude, phase and stability.

Dynamics of a fractional optimal control HBV infection model with capsids and CTL immune response

This paper deals with a fractional optimal control problem model that describes the interactions between hepatitis B virus (HBV) with HBV DNA-containing capsids, liver cells (hepatocytes), and the cytotoxic T-cell immune response. Optimal controls represent the effectiveness of drug therapy in inhibiting viral production and preventing new infections. The optimality system is derived and solved numerically. Our results also show that optimal treatment strategies reduce viral load and increase the number of uninfected cells, which improves the patient's quality of life.